Introduction
Reading is one of most absorbing hobby. It :-
Sharpens one's comprehension.
Build one's self-assurance and skill in dominating a page of print.
Also helps in developing good vocabulary.
Why Read.
Would reading be worth spending time?
or Look at it this way.
You are a college student, who some how never liked reading,especially text books and now you find yourself overwhelmed by books and start sleeping in studies, so by developing a reading habit you would be able to:-
Develop a mind set in which you realize that you - not the book - are the master.
To look forward with self-assurance and eagerness to tackling you reading assignments, because you are able to whip through a chapter efficiently and with accurate comprehension.
Discover a technique for quickly extracting the essence, the meat, of a page, of a chapter, of a whole book - with total concentration, without wasted effort,without sweat.
Take some other possibility
You are a business executive and scores of papers come to your desk every day; such as reports, trade journals,minutes of meetings,clippings pertinent to affairs of your firm. Each must be read, quickly but accurately; it is essential and crucial, that you should be able to read through for main ideas and comprehend the same.
It is possible through reading and reading only. And hence develop reading as your hobby or pastime.
Top
Reading Techniques.
Five indispensable techniques which you must master to be a better reader are:-
Reading more, and for longer period of time, (read an entire novel or a complete magazine in single evening).
Reading always, and everything, with a calm, sure, confident sense of urgency
Reading with keen awareness of the structure of a piece of writing.
Reading flexibly, (adjusting your rate and style of reading to what you read and your purpose in reading it).
Reading so that you interpret more of what you see in less time
We should cultivate the quality of learning how beautiful a book is, the feeling that this is treasure to hold in hands, to look guard and preserve.
Top
What to Read.
Learning to read, as you know is a continuous,never ending process. If you do very little additional reading, or if you read only material that offers no challenge to your comprehension, your reading will be of very little use.
Too many of us, once we reach a certain age, or once our formal schooling is completed, become so restricted in our choice of reading that we shy away from any new type of reading experience. We are reluctant to try anything beyond the level of a detective story or light novel, as if no other kind of book ever published could possibly interest us. Or we read only books in their professional or business field. Or only inspirational books. Or only our favourite newspaper every morning. Or only one magazine for which we have developed a liking.
And the trouble starts here. You should neither read only for entertainment nor only for information but you should also read for intellectual growth, for mental stimulation, for enriching your background of knowledge,. for increased wisdom, and for broader outlook and a mature understanding.
What kind of books should you read to continue your intellectual growth, to gain " a background for opinion and touchstone for judgment"?
The answer is simple one: Read books in fields you have little or no acquaintance with, books that will open for you new horizons of learning, books that will help you explore new areas of knowledge and experience, books that will make the world and people more understandable to you, books you can really sink your teeth into.
Monday, December 21, 2009
Why was 120V chosen as the standard voltage of homes in the US and not some other voltage?
The voltage level that any AC (Alternating Current) power line must have depends on the distance that the line must travel. Power generation plants often use voltages in the hundreds of thousands, 115,000 to 165,000 volts to move power over long distances. For lines of up to 20 miles long around a city, 2400 volts works well to reduce the voltage loss in the wires. In the United States, the electricity utility powerlines going to residential streets and roads are operated from 2300 to 2400 volts. With a 2400 volt supply, it is very convenient and easy to design and build pole transformers that have a 10-to-1 step-down ratio, thus providing 240 volts to the houses. The transformers also have a center tap to provide 120 volts from each 240-volt leg to the center point. This center point tap also provides a convenient point for a grounding connection. The actual measured voltage in your house receptacle circuits will normally be 120 to 125 volts. All appliances are rated for the minimum operating voltage (110-115), thus there is much confusion about the actual level of the supply voltages.
Different voltage levels are used in different countries around the world. The reason to use higher voltage is that it is more economical. The current is less, so the wires can be smaller. On the other hand, the reason to use lower voltage in homes is safety: the lower the voltage, the safer it is.
<><><>
Well, in a way we do use 240. If you have 10 amps drawing on one leg of your 240/120 service, and 10 amps on the other leg, the I2R (Eye Squared Are is how that is pronounced) losses are one fourth what they would be if you had 20 amps on just the one leg. But I think that the Europeans use 480/240, so their I2R losses are 1/16th of our 120 volt losses (if you had the 20 amps on just one leg.)
Why not use 120?? We could use 220 or so like the Europeans only their alternating mains frequency (cycles per second) is 50Hz not 60Hz like ours. You could think 240 volts is too much in your house for simple stuff as you would get a worse beating/shock if you were working on stuff on your own. There are a whole ton of complicated other reasons having to do with transformers and transmission lines and the math involved. I recommend a book from Barnes and Nobles and a Hazelnut latte !!
<><><>
The original voltage was actually about 90 volts direct current (VDC) which was Edison's plan. Tesla proposed that the electrical grid be alternating current (AC) and competed with Edison for the first generating plant to be built in the State of New York at Niagara Falls. Edison proposed a DC system and Tesla an AC system. As history tells us Tesla won the competition and because of that we had the industrial revolution. Had Edison won we would still be in the dark ages because of the inefficiency of transmitting DC over long distances. As Edison was promoting the electrical light bulb around the country almost every town had to have its own generating station because DC would lose so much in the transmission that it became unusable after only several miles.
Tesla also had invented the poly phase alternating current generators that provided for the ability to generate the voltages necessary for long distance transmission. Tesla kept the voltage about the same as what Edison started but raised it to the 110 volts alternating current (VAC) because of the higher related voltages of 220 VAC and 440 VAC which were integral to the poly phase generators of higher efficiency.
All AC voltages distributed to homes actually come to the buildings at 440-480 VAC. Within the meter box at every home the 440-480 VAC is broken down to 220-240 VAC and then to 110-120 VAC for use in lighting, wall plugs, and small appliances. All major appliances like electric ranges, clothes dryer, air conditioning, water heaters use the 220 VAC.
There is a good discussion of this subject at http:/flyingmoose.org/truthfic/tesla.htm and good reading about the contributions of Tesla in "The Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla."
The standard voltage available in most parts of the country now varies from 110 VAC to 120 VAC+ volts usually around 117-118 VAC.
Correction
The last previous section has such great informational errors as to render the contributions worse than wrong. It conveys untruth and creates misconceptions about electricity and the process of distribution.
There is no 480 at residential meter enclosures.
Neither does the meter do anything more than record the consumption of power.
Period.
Correction
Common distribution voltage run up to 16000 volts. 12000 is very common but there is still a lot of activity adding on to legacy distribution grids at lower voltage. A 2400 volt primary is very low for a distribution transformer.
Correction
In actuality power transmission is not 20 miles and the voltage is more then 110kV. In fact interstate transmission is in the range of close to 500kV. At a substation it is reduced to 16kV for local area distribution. Transmission for the whole of the grid in the USA is all tied together . Why? For economy and reliability. For example in the Summer some states do not use air conditioning but in Las Vegas CA they do, so they actually buy the power from those northern states in the Summer because it is cost effective and ensures there can be less generation plants. Even then reserve spin power must be sustained for peak demands. Because power plants cannot produce almost instant acceleration to meet new demands, like car engines can do, in many cities and other peak demand areas, specialist "peakers" work to ensure that the the integrity of the grid is always maintained. 240 v is standard for the USA but only one phase is used and the transformer center tap is earthed to ground making it safer. The 60 cycles per second produced by power generation is not as stable as some people think: it sometimes has to vary throughout the day as loading changes but averages 60Hz over a complete day.
Addendum
120 V has an advantage over higher voltage such as the 230 V voltage that it is considered generally safer as it is less powerful. On the other hand, it costs more to transmit power to the end user using 120 V as copper lines must be thicker, hence lower voltages are generally used by wealthy countries.
Wrong again the transformer on a pole has en deed 240 v ac but only one phase is run to the houses the neutral or center tap is grounded.
Different voltage levels are used in different countries around the world. The reason to use higher voltage is that it is more economical. The current is less, so the wires can be smaller. On the other hand, the reason to use lower voltage in homes is safety: the lower the voltage, the safer it is.
<><><>
Well, in a way we do use 240. If you have 10 amps drawing on one leg of your 240/120 service, and 10 amps on the other leg, the I2R (Eye Squared Are is how that is pronounced) losses are one fourth what they would be if you had 20 amps on just the one leg. But I think that the Europeans use 480/240, so their I2R losses are 1/16th of our 120 volt losses (if you had the 20 amps on just one leg.)
Why not use 120?? We could use 220 or so like the Europeans only their alternating mains frequency (cycles per second) is 50Hz not 60Hz like ours. You could think 240 volts is too much in your house for simple stuff as you would get a worse beating/shock if you were working on stuff on your own. There are a whole ton of complicated other reasons having to do with transformers and transmission lines and the math involved. I recommend a book from Barnes and Nobles and a Hazelnut latte !!
<><><>
The original voltage was actually about 90 volts direct current (VDC) which was Edison's plan. Tesla proposed that the electrical grid be alternating current (AC) and competed with Edison for the first generating plant to be built in the State of New York at Niagara Falls. Edison proposed a DC system and Tesla an AC system. As history tells us Tesla won the competition and because of that we had the industrial revolution. Had Edison won we would still be in the dark ages because of the inefficiency of transmitting DC over long distances. As Edison was promoting the electrical light bulb around the country almost every town had to have its own generating station because DC would lose so much in the transmission that it became unusable after only several miles.
Tesla also had invented the poly phase alternating current generators that provided for the ability to generate the voltages necessary for long distance transmission. Tesla kept the voltage about the same as what Edison started but raised it to the 110 volts alternating current (VAC) because of the higher related voltages of 220 VAC and 440 VAC which were integral to the poly phase generators of higher efficiency.
All AC voltages distributed to homes actually come to the buildings at 440-480 VAC. Within the meter box at every home the 440-480 VAC is broken down to 220-240 VAC and then to 110-120 VAC for use in lighting, wall plugs, and small appliances. All major appliances like electric ranges, clothes dryer, air conditioning, water heaters use the 220 VAC.
There is a good discussion of this subject at http:/flyingmoose.org/truthfic/tesla.htm and good reading about the contributions of Tesla in "The Prodigal Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla."
The standard voltage available in most parts of the country now varies from 110 VAC to 120 VAC+ volts usually around 117-118 VAC.
Correction
The last previous section has such great informational errors as to render the contributions worse than wrong. It conveys untruth and creates misconceptions about electricity and the process of distribution.
There is no 480 at residential meter enclosures.
Neither does the meter do anything more than record the consumption of power.
Period.
Correction
Common distribution voltage run up to 16000 volts. 12000 is very common but there is still a lot of activity adding on to legacy distribution grids at lower voltage. A 2400 volt primary is very low for a distribution transformer.
Correction
In actuality power transmission is not 20 miles and the voltage is more then 110kV. In fact interstate transmission is in the range of close to 500kV. At a substation it is reduced to 16kV for local area distribution. Transmission for the whole of the grid in the USA is all tied together . Why? For economy and reliability. For example in the Summer some states do not use air conditioning but in Las Vegas CA they do, so they actually buy the power from those northern states in the Summer because it is cost effective and ensures there can be less generation plants. Even then reserve spin power must be sustained for peak demands. Because power plants cannot produce almost instant acceleration to meet new demands, like car engines can do, in many cities and other peak demand areas, specialist "peakers" work to ensure that the the integrity of the grid is always maintained. 240 v is standard for the USA but only one phase is used and the transformer center tap is earthed to ground making it safer. The 60 cycles per second produced by power generation is not as stable as some people think: it sometimes has to vary throughout the day as loading changes but averages 60Hz over a complete day.
Addendum
120 V has an advantage over higher voltage such as the 230 V voltage that it is considered generally safer as it is less powerful. On the other hand, it costs more to transmit power to the end user using 120 V as copper lines must be thicker, hence lower voltages are generally used by wealthy countries.
Wrong again the transformer on a pole has en deed 240 v ac but only one phase is run to the houses the neutral or center tap is grounded.
50 HZs
You need alternating current to operate a transformer. (It does not work with DC). Transformers are required to step up and down the voltage which is required to transport electric energy in an economic way. frequency's of 40 to 400 Hz work fairly well for transformers, and the choice with in this range must have been fairly arbitrairly. But one can imagine that the number 60 is inspired minutes of a clock, wher as the number 50 is inspired by the decimal number counting (a half of 100). By the way 60 Hz is slightly more efficient. A US transformer often has a hard life in Europe. For weight saving the frequency of installations in airplanes are historically 400Hz. Transformers can be much smaller this way.
50Hzs
Utility frequency
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The waveform of 230 volt, 50 Hz compared with 110 V, 60 Hz.
The line frequency (American English) or mains frequency (British English) is the frequency at which alternating current (AC) is transmitted from a power plant to the end user. In most parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas it is typically 60 Hz. Precise details are shown in the list of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies.
During the development of commercial electric power systems in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many different frequencies (and voltages) had been used. Large investment in equipment at one frequency made standardization a slow process. However, as of the turn of the 21st century, places that now use the 50 Hz frequency tend to use 220-240 V, and those that now use 60 Hz tend to use 100-120 V. Both frequencies co-exist today (some countries such as Japan use both) with no technical reason to prefer one over the other and no apparent desire for complete worldwide standardization.
Unless specified by the manufacturer to operate on both 50 and 60 Hz, appliances may not operate efficiently or even safely if used on anything other than the intended frequency.
Contents [hide]
1 Operating factors
1.1 Lighting
1.2 Rotating machines
1.3 Transmission and transformers
1.4 System interconnection
2 History
2.1 25 Hz origins
2.2 40 Hz origins
2.3 Standardization
3 Railways
4 400 Hz
5 Stability
5.1 Long-term stability and clock synchronization
5.2 Frequency and load
6 Audible noise and interference
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
[edit]Operating factors
Several factors influence the choice of frequency in an AC system.[1] Lighting, motors, transformers, generators and transmission lines all have characteristics which depend on the power frequency.
All of these factors interact and make selection of a power frequency a matter of considerable importance. The best frequency is a compromise between contradictory requirements. In the late 19th century, designers would pick a relatively high frequency for systems featuring transformers and arc lights, so as to economize on transformer materials, but would pick a lower frequency for systems with long transmission lines or feeding primarily motor loads or rotary converters for producing direct current. When large central generating stations became practical, the choice of frequency was made based on the nature of the intended load. Eventually the improvements in machine design allowed a single frequency to be used both for lighting and motor loads; a unified system improved the economics of electricity production since system load was more uniform during the course of a day.
[edit]Lighting
The first applications of commercial electric power were incandescent lighting and commutator-type electric motors. Both devices operate well on DC, but DC cannot be easily transmitted long distances at utilization voltage and also cannot be easily changed in voltage.
If an incandescent lamp is operated on a low-frequency current, the filament cools on each half-cycle of the alternating current, leading to perceptible change in brightness and flicker of the lamps; the effect is more pronounced with arc lamps, and the later mercury-vapor and fluorescent lamps.
[edit]Rotating machines
Commutator-type motors do not operate well on high-frequency AC since the rapid changes of current are opposed by the inductance of the motor field; even today, although commutator-type universal motors are common in 50 Hz and 60 Hz household appliances, they are small motors, less than 1 kW. The induction motor was found to work well on frequencies around 50 to 60 Hz but with the materials available in the 1890s would not work well at a frequency of, say, 133 Hz. There is a fixed relationship between the number of magnetic poles in the induction motor field, the frequency of the alternating current, and the rotation speed; so, a given standard speed limits the choice of frequency (and the reverse). Once induction motors became common, it was important to standardize frequency for compatibility with the customer's equipment.
Generators operated by slow-speed reciprocating engines will produce lower frequencies, for a given number of poles, than those operated by, for example, a high-speed steam turbine. For very slow prime mover speeds, it would be costly to build a generator with enough poles to provide a high AC frequency. As well, synchronizing two generators to the same speed was found to be easier at lower speeds. While belt drives were common as a way to increase speed of slow engines, in very large ratings (thousands of kilowatts) these were expensive, inefficient and unreliable. Direct-driven generators off steam turbines after about 1906 favored higher frequencies. The steadier rotation speed of high-speed machines allowed for satisfactory operation of commutators in rotary converters.[2]
Direct-current power was not entirely displaced by alternating current and was useful in railway and electrochemical processes. Prior to the development of mercury arc valve rectifiers, rotary converters were used to produce DC power from AC. Like other commutator-type machines, these worked better with lower frequencies.
[edit]Transmission and transformers
With AC, transformers can be used to step down high transmission voltages to lower utilization voltage. Since, for a given power level, the dimensions of a transformer are roughly inversely proportional to frequency, a system with many transformers would be more economical at a higher frequency.
Electric power transmission over long lines favors lower frequencies. The effects of the distributed capacitance and inductance of the line are less at low frequency.
[edit]System interconnection
Generators can only be interconnected to operate in parallel if they are of the same frequency and wave-shape. By standardizing the frequency used, generators in a geographic area can be interconnected in a grid, providing reliability and cost savings.
[edit]History
Utility frequencies currently in use.
Many different power frequencies were used in the 19th century.
Very early isolated AC generating schemes used arbitrary frequencies based on convenience for steam engine, water turbine and electrical generator design. Frequencies between 16⅔ Hz and 133⅓ Hz were used on different systems. For example, the city of Coventry, England, in 1895 had a unique 87 Hz single-phase distribution system that was in use until 1906.[3] The proliferation of frequencies grew out of the rapid development of electrical machines in the period 1880 through 1900. In the early incandescent lighting period, single-phase AC was common and typical generators were 8-pole machines operated at 2000 RPM, giving a frequency of 133 cycles per second.
Though many theories exist, and quite a few entertaining urban legends, there is little certitude in the details of the history of 60 Hz vs. 50 Hz.
The German company AEG (descended from a company founded by Edison in Germany) built the first German generating facility to run at 50 Hz, allegedly because 60 was not a preferred number. AEG's choice of 50 Hz is thought by some to relate to a more "metric-friendly" number than 60. At the time, AEG had a virtual monopoly and their standard spread to the rest of Europe. After observing flicker of lamps operated by the 40 Hz power transmitted by the Lauffen-Frankfurt link in 1891, AEG raised their standard frequency to 50 Hz in 1891.[4]
Westinghouse Electric decided to standardize on a lower frequency to permit operation of both electric lighting and induction motors on the same generating system. Although 50 Hz was suitable for both, in 1890 Westinghouse considered that existing arc-lighting equipment operated slightly better on 60 Hz, and so that frequency was chosen.[5] Frequencies much below 50 Hz gave noticeable flicker of arc or incandescent lighting. The operation of Tesla's induction motor required a lower frequency than the 133 Hz common for lighting systems in 1890. In 1893 General Electric Corporation, which was affiliated with AEG in Germany, built a generating project at Mill Creek, California using 50 Hz, but changed to 60 Hz a year later to maintain market share with the Westinghouse standard.
[edit]25 Hz origins
The first generators at the Niagara Falls project, built by Westinghouse in 1895, were 25 Hz because the turbine speed had already been set before alternating current power transmission had been definitively selected. Westinghouse would have selected a low frequency of 30 Hz to drive motor loads, but the turbines for the project had already been specified at 250 RPM. The machines could have been made to deliver 16⅔ Hz power suitable for heavy commutator-type motors but the Westinghouse company objected that this would be undesirable for lighting, and suggested 33⅓ Hz. Eventually a compromise of 25 Hz, with 12 pole 250 RPM generators, was chosen.[6] Because the Niagara project was so influential on electric power systems design, 25 Hz prevailed as the North American standard for low-frequency AC.
[edit]40 Hz origins
A General Electric study concluded that 40 Hz would have been a good compromise between lighting, motor, and transmission needs, given the materials and equipment available in the first quarter of the 20th Century. Several 40 Hz systems were built. The Lauffen-Frankfurt demonstration used 40 Hz to transmit power 175 km in 1891. A large interconnected 40 Hz network existed in north-east England (the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Company, NESCO) until the advent of the National Grid (UK) in the late 1920s, and projects in Italy used 42 Hz.[7] The oldest continuously-operating commercial hydroelectric power plant in the United States, at Mechanicville, New York, still produces electric power at 40 Hz and supplies power to the local 60 Hz transmission system through frequency changers. Industrial plants and mines in North America and Australia sometimes were built with 40 Hz electrical systems which were maintained until too uneconomic to continue. Although frequencies near 40 Hz found much commercial use, these were bypassed by standardized frequencies of 25, 50 and 60 Hz preferred by higher volume equipment manufacturers.
[edit]Standardization
In the early days of electrification, so many frequencies were used that no one value prevailed (London in 1918 had 10 different frequencies). As the 20th century continued, more power was produced at 60 Hz (North America) or 50 Hz (Europe and most of Asia). Standardization allowed international trade in electrical equipment. Much later, the use of standard frequencies allowed interconection of power grids. It wasn't until after World War II with the advent of affordable electrical consumer goods that more uniform standards were enacted.
In Britain, implementation of the National Grid starting in 1926 compelled the standardization of frequencies among the many interconnected electrical service providers. The 50 Hz standard was completely established only after World War II.
Because of the cost of conversion, some parts of the distribution system may continue to operate on original frequencies even after a new frequency is chosen. 25 Hz power was used in Ontario, Quebec, the northern USA, and for railway electrification. In the 1950s, many 25 Hz systems, from the generators right through to household appliances, were converted and standardized. Some 25 Hz generators still exist at the Beck 1 and Rankine generating stations near Niagara Falls to provide power for large industrial customers who did not want to replace existing equipment; and some 25 Hz motors and a 25 Hz electrical generator power station exist in New Orleans for floodwater pumps [1]. Some of the metre gauge railway lines in Switzerland operate at 16⅔ Hz, which can obtained from the local 50 Hz 3 phase power grid through frequency converters.
In some cases, where most load was to be railway or motor loads, it was considered economic to generate power at 25 Hz and install rotary converters for 60 Hz distribution.[8] Converters for production of DC from alternating current were larger and more efficient at 25 Hz compared with 60 Hz. Remnant fragments of older systems may be tied to the standard frequency system via a rotary converter or static inverter frequency changer. These allow energy to be interchanged between two power networks at different frequencies, but the systems are large, costly, and consume some energy in operation.
Rotating-machine frequency changers used to convert between 25 Hz and 60 Hz systems were awkward to design; a 60 Hz machine with 24 poles would turn at the same speed as a 25 Hz machine with 10 poles, making the machines large, slow-speed and expensive. A ratio of 60/30 would have simplified these designs, but the installed base at 25 Hz was too large to be economically opposed.
In the United States, the Southern California Edison company had standardized on 50 Hz [9]. Much of Southern California operated on 50 Hz and did not completely change frequency of their generators and customer equipment to 60 Hz until around 1948. Some projects by the Au Sable Electric Company used 30 Hz at transmission voltages up to 110,000 volts in 1914.[10]
In Mexico, areas operating on 50 Hz grid were converted during the 1970s, uniting the country under 60 Hz.[11]
In Japan, the western part of the country (Kyoto and west) uses 60 Hz and the eastern part (Tokyo and east) uses 50 Hz. This originates in the first purchases of generators from AEG in 1895, installed for Tokyo, and General Electric in 1896, installed in Osaka.
Utility Frequencies in Use in 1897 in North America [12]
Cycles Description
140 Wood arc-lighting dynamo
133 Stanley-Kelly Company
125 General Electric single-phase
66.7 Stanley-Kelly company
62.5 General Electric "monocyclic"
60 Many manufacturers, becoming "increasing common" in 1897
58.3 General Electric Lachine Rapids
40 General Electric
33 General Electric at Portland Oregon for rotary converters
27 Crocker-Wheeler for calcium carbide furnaces
25 Westinghouse Niagara Falls 2-phase - for operating motors
Even by the middle of the 20th century, utility frequencies were still not entirely standardized at the now-common 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In 1946, a reference manual for designers of radio equipment [13] listed the following now obsolete frequencies as in use. Many of these regions also had 50 cycle, 60 cycle or direct current supplies.
Frequencies in Use in 1946 (As well as 50 Hz and 60 Hz)
Cycles Region
25 Canada (Southern Ontario), Panama Canal Zone(*), France, Germany, Sweden, UK, China, Hawaii,India, Manchuria,
40 Jamaica, Belgium, Switzerland, UK, Federated Malay States, Egypt, West Australia(*)
42 Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Monaco(*), Portugal, Romania, Yugoslavia, Libya (Tripoli)
43 Argentina
45 Italy, Libya (Tripoli)
76 Gibraltar(*)
100 Malta(*), British East Africa
Where regions are marked (*), this is the only utility frequency shown for that region.
[edit]Railways
Main article: List of current systems for electric rail traction
Other power frequencies are used. Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway use traction power networks for railways, distributing single-phase AC at 16.7 Hz[14]. A frequency of 25 Hz is used for the Austrian railway Mariazeller Bahn and some railway systems in New York and Pennsylvania (Amtrak) in the USA. Other railway systems are energized at the local commercial power frequency, 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Traction power may be derived from commercial power supplies by frequency converters, or in some cases may be produced by dedicated generating stations. In the 19th Century frequencies as low as 8 Hz were contemplated for operation of electric railways with commutator motors [1] Some outlets in trains carry the correct voltage, but using the original train network frequency like 16⅔ Hz.
[edit]400 Hz
Frequencies as high as 400 Hz are used in submarines, aerospace, spacecraft and server rooms for computer power and hand-held machine tools. Such high frequencies cannot be economically transmitted long distances, so 400 Hz power systems are usually confined to a building or vehicle. Transformers and motors for 400 Hz are much smaller and lighter than at 50 or 60 Hz, which is an advantage in aircraft and ships. This is an application suitable for switched-mode power supplies.
[edit]Stability
[edit]Long-term stability and clock synchronization
Regulation of power system frequency for timekeeping accuracy was not commonplace until after 1926 and the invention of the electric clock driven by a synchronous motor. Network operators will regulate the daily average frequency so that clocks stay within a few seconds of correct time. In practice the nominal frequency is raised or lowered by a specific percentage to maintain synchronization. Over the course of a day, the average frequency is maintained at the nominal value within a few hundred parts per million.[15] In the continental European UCTE grid, the deviation between network phase time and UTC is calculated at 08:00 each day in a control center in Switzerland, and the target frequency is then adjusted by up to ±0.02% from 50 Hz as needed, to ensure a long-term frequency average of exactly 3600×24×50 cycles per day is maintained.[16] In North America, whenever the error exceeds 10 seconds for the east, 3 seconds for Texas, or 2 seconds for the west, a correction of ±0.02 Hz (0.033%) is applied. Time error corrections start and end either on the hour or on the half hour.[17][18] A dynamicdemand.co.uk/grid - Real-time frequency meter for power generation in the United Kingdom is available online. Smaller power systems may not maintain frequency with the same degree of accuracy.
[edit]Frequency and load
The primary reason for accurate frequency control is to allow the flow of alternating current power from multiple generators through the network to be controlled. The trend in system frequency is a measure of mismatch between demand and generation, and so is a necessary parameter for load control in interconnected systems.
Frequency of the system will vary as load and generation change. Increasing the mechanical input power to a synchronous generator will not greatly affect the system frequency but will produce more electric power from that unit. During a severe overload caused by tripping or failure of generators or transmission lines the power system frequency will decline, due to an imbalance of load versus generation. Loss of an interconnection, while exporting power (relative to system total generation) will cause system frequency to rise. AGC (automatic generation control) is used to maintain scheduled frequency and interchange power flows. Control systems in power plants detect changes in the network-wide frequency and adjust mechanical power input to generators back to their target frequency. This counteracting usually takes a few tens of seconds due to the large rotating masses involved. Temporary frequency changes are an unavoidable consequence of changing demand. Exceptional or rapidly changing mains frequency is often a sign that an electricity distribution network is operating near its capacity limits, dramatic examples of which can sometimes be observed shortly before major outages.
Frequency protection relays on the power system network sense the decline of frequency and automatically initiate load shedding or tripping of interconnection lines, to preserve the operation of at least part of the network. Small frequency deviations (i.e.- 0.5 Hz on a 50 Hz or 60 Hz network) will result in automatic load shedding or other control actions to restore system frequency.
Smaller power systems, not extensively interconnected with many generators and loads, will not maintain frequency with the same degree of accuracy. Where system frequency is not tightly regulated during heavy load periods, the system operators may allow system frequency to rise during periods of light load, to maintain a daily average frequency of acceptable accuracy.[19][20]
[edit]Audible noise and interference
AC-powered appliances can give off a characteristic hum, often called "mains hum", at the multiples of the frequencies of AC power that they use. It is usually produced by motor and transformer core laminations vibrating in time with the magnetic field. This hum is often evident in poorly made audio amplifiers as well, where the power supply is inadequately filtered.
50 Hz power hum
60 Hz power hum
400 Hz power hum
Most countries chose their television vertical synchronization rate to approximate the local mains supply frequency. This helps prevent power line hum and magnetic interference from causing visible beat frequencies in the displayed picture of analog receivers, but is of diminishing importance in modern digital display systems.
[edit]See also
Mains electricity
Mains power systems
List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies
Power connector
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The waveform of 230 volt, 50 Hz compared with 110 V, 60 Hz.
The line frequency (American English) or mains frequency (British English) is the frequency at which alternating current (AC) is transmitted from a power plant to the end user. In most parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas it is typically 60 Hz. Precise details are shown in the list of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies.
During the development of commercial electric power systems in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many different frequencies (and voltages) had been used. Large investment in equipment at one frequency made standardization a slow process. However, as of the turn of the 21st century, places that now use the 50 Hz frequency tend to use 220-240 V, and those that now use 60 Hz tend to use 100-120 V. Both frequencies co-exist today (some countries such as Japan use both) with no technical reason to prefer one over the other and no apparent desire for complete worldwide standardization.
Unless specified by the manufacturer to operate on both 50 and 60 Hz, appliances may not operate efficiently or even safely if used on anything other than the intended frequency.
Contents [hide]
1 Operating factors
1.1 Lighting
1.2 Rotating machines
1.3 Transmission and transformers
1.4 System interconnection
2 History
2.1 25 Hz origins
2.2 40 Hz origins
2.3 Standardization
3 Railways
4 400 Hz
5 Stability
5.1 Long-term stability and clock synchronization
5.2 Frequency and load
6 Audible noise and interference
7 See also
8 Further reading
9 References
[edit]Operating factors
Several factors influence the choice of frequency in an AC system.[1] Lighting, motors, transformers, generators and transmission lines all have characteristics which depend on the power frequency.
All of these factors interact and make selection of a power frequency a matter of considerable importance. The best frequency is a compromise between contradictory requirements. In the late 19th century, designers would pick a relatively high frequency for systems featuring transformers and arc lights, so as to economize on transformer materials, but would pick a lower frequency for systems with long transmission lines or feeding primarily motor loads or rotary converters for producing direct current. When large central generating stations became practical, the choice of frequency was made based on the nature of the intended load. Eventually the improvements in machine design allowed a single frequency to be used both for lighting and motor loads; a unified system improved the economics of electricity production since system load was more uniform during the course of a day.
[edit]Lighting
The first applications of commercial electric power were incandescent lighting and commutator-type electric motors. Both devices operate well on DC, but DC cannot be easily transmitted long distances at utilization voltage and also cannot be easily changed in voltage.
If an incandescent lamp is operated on a low-frequency current, the filament cools on each half-cycle of the alternating current, leading to perceptible change in brightness and flicker of the lamps; the effect is more pronounced with arc lamps, and the later mercury-vapor and fluorescent lamps.
[edit]Rotating machines
Commutator-type motors do not operate well on high-frequency AC since the rapid changes of current are opposed by the inductance of the motor field; even today, although commutator-type universal motors are common in 50 Hz and 60 Hz household appliances, they are small motors, less than 1 kW. The induction motor was found to work well on frequencies around 50 to 60 Hz but with the materials available in the 1890s would not work well at a frequency of, say, 133 Hz. There is a fixed relationship between the number of magnetic poles in the induction motor field, the frequency of the alternating current, and the rotation speed; so, a given standard speed limits the choice of frequency (and the reverse). Once induction motors became common, it was important to standardize frequency for compatibility with the customer's equipment.
Generators operated by slow-speed reciprocating engines will produce lower frequencies, for a given number of poles, than those operated by, for example, a high-speed steam turbine. For very slow prime mover speeds, it would be costly to build a generator with enough poles to provide a high AC frequency. As well, synchronizing two generators to the same speed was found to be easier at lower speeds. While belt drives were common as a way to increase speed of slow engines, in very large ratings (thousands of kilowatts) these were expensive, inefficient and unreliable. Direct-driven generators off steam turbines after about 1906 favored higher frequencies. The steadier rotation speed of high-speed machines allowed for satisfactory operation of commutators in rotary converters.[2]
Direct-current power was not entirely displaced by alternating current and was useful in railway and electrochemical processes. Prior to the development of mercury arc valve rectifiers, rotary converters were used to produce DC power from AC. Like other commutator-type machines, these worked better with lower frequencies.
[edit]Transmission and transformers
With AC, transformers can be used to step down high transmission voltages to lower utilization voltage. Since, for a given power level, the dimensions of a transformer are roughly inversely proportional to frequency, a system with many transformers would be more economical at a higher frequency.
Electric power transmission over long lines favors lower frequencies. The effects of the distributed capacitance and inductance of the line are less at low frequency.
[edit]System interconnection
Generators can only be interconnected to operate in parallel if they are of the same frequency and wave-shape. By standardizing the frequency used, generators in a geographic area can be interconnected in a grid, providing reliability and cost savings.
[edit]History
Utility frequencies currently in use.
Many different power frequencies were used in the 19th century.
Very early isolated AC generating schemes used arbitrary frequencies based on convenience for steam engine, water turbine and electrical generator design. Frequencies between 16⅔ Hz and 133⅓ Hz were used on different systems. For example, the city of Coventry, England, in 1895 had a unique 87 Hz single-phase distribution system that was in use until 1906.[3] The proliferation of frequencies grew out of the rapid development of electrical machines in the period 1880 through 1900. In the early incandescent lighting period, single-phase AC was common and typical generators were 8-pole machines operated at 2000 RPM, giving a frequency of 133 cycles per second.
Though many theories exist, and quite a few entertaining urban legends, there is little certitude in the details of the history of 60 Hz vs. 50 Hz.
The German company AEG (descended from a company founded by Edison in Germany) built the first German generating facility to run at 50 Hz, allegedly because 60 was not a preferred number. AEG's choice of 50 Hz is thought by some to relate to a more "metric-friendly" number than 60. At the time, AEG had a virtual monopoly and their standard spread to the rest of Europe. After observing flicker of lamps operated by the 40 Hz power transmitted by the Lauffen-Frankfurt link in 1891, AEG raised their standard frequency to 50 Hz in 1891.[4]
Westinghouse Electric decided to standardize on a lower frequency to permit operation of both electric lighting and induction motors on the same generating system. Although 50 Hz was suitable for both, in 1890 Westinghouse considered that existing arc-lighting equipment operated slightly better on 60 Hz, and so that frequency was chosen.[5] Frequencies much below 50 Hz gave noticeable flicker of arc or incandescent lighting. The operation of Tesla's induction motor required a lower frequency than the 133 Hz common for lighting systems in 1890. In 1893 General Electric Corporation, which was affiliated with AEG in Germany, built a generating project at Mill Creek, California using 50 Hz, but changed to 60 Hz a year later to maintain market share with the Westinghouse standard.
[edit]25 Hz origins
The first generators at the Niagara Falls project, built by Westinghouse in 1895, were 25 Hz because the turbine speed had already been set before alternating current power transmission had been definitively selected. Westinghouse would have selected a low frequency of 30 Hz to drive motor loads, but the turbines for the project had already been specified at 250 RPM. The machines could have been made to deliver 16⅔ Hz power suitable for heavy commutator-type motors but the Westinghouse company objected that this would be undesirable for lighting, and suggested 33⅓ Hz. Eventually a compromise of 25 Hz, with 12 pole 250 RPM generators, was chosen.[6] Because the Niagara project was so influential on electric power systems design, 25 Hz prevailed as the North American standard for low-frequency AC.
[edit]40 Hz origins
A General Electric study concluded that 40 Hz would have been a good compromise between lighting, motor, and transmission needs, given the materials and equipment available in the first quarter of the 20th Century. Several 40 Hz systems were built. The Lauffen-Frankfurt demonstration used 40 Hz to transmit power 175 km in 1891. A large interconnected 40 Hz network existed in north-east England (the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Company, NESCO) until the advent of the National Grid (UK) in the late 1920s, and projects in Italy used 42 Hz.[7] The oldest continuously-operating commercial hydroelectric power plant in the United States, at Mechanicville, New York, still produces electric power at 40 Hz and supplies power to the local 60 Hz transmission system through frequency changers. Industrial plants and mines in North America and Australia sometimes were built with 40 Hz electrical systems which were maintained until too uneconomic to continue. Although frequencies near 40 Hz found much commercial use, these were bypassed by standardized frequencies of 25, 50 and 60 Hz preferred by higher volume equipment manufacturers.
[edit]Standardization
In the early days of electrification, so many frequencies were used that no one value prevailed (London in 1918 had 10 different frequencies). As the 20th century continued, more power was produced at 60 Hz (North America) or 50 Hz (Europe and most of Asia). Standardization allowed international trade in electrical equipment. Much later, the use of standard frequencies allowed interconection of power grids. It wasn't until after World War II with the advent of affordable electrical consumer goods that more uniform standards were enacted.
In Britain, implementation of the National Grid starting in 1926 compelled the standardization of frequencies among the many interconnected electrical service providers. The 50 Hz standard was completely established only after World War II.
Because of the cost of conversion, some parts of the distribution system may continue to operate on original frequencies even after a new frequency is chosen. 25 Hz power was used in Ontario, Quebec, the northern USA, and for railway electrification. In the 1950s, many 25 Hz systems, from the generators right through to household appliances, were converted and standardized. Some 25 Hz generators still exist at the Beck 1 and Rankine generating stations near Niagara Falls to provide power for large industrial customers who did not want to replace existing equipment; and some 25 Hz motors and a 25 Hz electrical generator power station exist in New Orleans for floodwater pumps [1]. Some of the metre gauge railway lines in Switzerland operate at 16⅔ Hz, which can obtained from the local 50 Hz 3 phase power grid through frequency converters.
In some cases, where most load was to be railway or motor loads, it was considered economic to generate power at 25 Hz and install rotary converters for 60 Hz distribution.[8] Converters for production of DC from alternating current were larger and more efficient at 25 Hz compared with 60 Hz. Remnant fragments of older systems may be tied to the standard frequency system via a rotary converter or static inverter frequency changer. These allow energy to be interchanged between two power networks at different frequencies, but the systems are large, costly, and consume some energy in operation.
Rotating-machine frequency changers used to convert between 25 Hz and 60 Hz systems were awkward to design; a 60 Hz machine with 24 poles would turn at the same speed as a 25 Hz machine with 10 poles, making the machines large, slow-speed and expensive. A ratio of 60/30 would have simplified these designs, but the installed base at 25 Hz was too large to be economically opposed.
In the United States, the Southern California Edison company had standardized on 50 Hz [9]. Much of Southern California operated on 50 Hz and did not completely change frequency of their generators and customer equipment to 60 Hz until around 1948. Some projects by the Au Sable Electric Company used 30 Hz at transmission voltages up to 110,000 volts in 1914.[10]
In Mexico, areas operating on 50 Hz grid were converted during the 1970s, uniting the country under 60 Hz.[11]
In Japan, the western part of the country (Kyoto and west) uses 60 Hz and the eastern part (Tokyo and east) uses 50 Hz. This originates in the first purchases of generators from AEG in 1895, installed for Tokyo, and General Electric in 1896, installed in Osaka.
Utility Frequencies in Use in 1897 in North America [12]
Cycles Description
140 Wood arc-lighting dynamo
133 Stanley-Kelly Company
125 General Electric single-phase
66.7 Stanley-Kelly company
62.5 General Electric "monocyclic"
60 Many manufacturers, becoming "increasing common" in 1897
58.3 General Electric Lachine Rapids
40 General Electric
33 General Electric at Portland Oregon for rotary converters
27 Crocker-Wheeler for calcium carbide furnaces
25 Westinghouse Niagara Falls 2-phase - for operating motors
Even by the middle of the 20th century, utility frequencies were still not entirely standardized at the now-common 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In 1946, a reference manual for designers of radio equipment [13] listed the following now obsolete frequencies as in use. Many of these regions also had 50 cycle, 60 cycle or direct current supplies.
Frequencies in Use in 1946 (As well as 50 Hz and 60 Hz)
Cycles Region
25 Canada (Southern Ontario), Panama Canal Zone(*), France, Germany, Sweden, UK, China, Hawaii,India, Manchuria,
40 Jamaica, Belgium, Switzerland, UK, Federated Malay States, Egypt, West Australia(*)
42 Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Italy, Monaco(*), Portugal, Romania, Yugoslavia, Libya (Tripoli)
43 Argentina
45 Italy, Libya (Tripoli)
76 Gibraltar(*)
100 Malta(*), British East Africa
Where regions are marked (*), this is the only utility frequency shown for that region.
[edit]Railways
Main article: List of current systems for electric rail traction
Other power frequencies are used. Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden and Norway use traction power networks for railways, distributing single-phase AC at 16.7 Hz[14]. A frequency of 25 Hz is used for the Austrian railway Mariazeller Bahn and some railway systems in New York and Pennsylvania (Amtrak) in the USA. Other railway systems are energized at the local commercial power frequency, 50 Hz or 60 Hz. Traction power may be derived from commercial power supplies by frequency converters, or in some cases may be produced by dedicated generating stations. In the 19th Century frequencies as low as 8 Hz were contemplated for operation of electric railways with commutator motors [1] Some outlets in trains carry the correct voltage, but using the original train network frequency like 16⅔ Hz.
[edit]400 Hz
Frequencies as high as 400 Hz are used in submarines, aerospace, spacecraft and server rooms for computer power and hand-held machine tools. Such high frequencies cannot be economically transmitted long distances, so 400 Hz power systems are usually confined to a building or vehicle. Transformers and motors for 400 Hz are much smaller and lighter than at 50 or 60 Hz, which is an advantage in aircraft and ships. This is an application suitable for switched-mode power supplies.
[edit]Stability
[edit]Long-term stability and clock synchronization
Regulation of power system frequency for timekeeping accuracy was not commonplace until after 1926 and the invention of the electric clock driven by a synchronous motor. Network operators will regulate the daily average frequency so that clocks stay within a few seconds of correct time. In practice the nominal frequency is raised or lowered by a specific percentage to maintain synchronization. Over the course of a day, the average frequency is maintained at the nominal value within a few hundred parts per million.[15] In the continental European UCTE grid, the deviation between network phase time and UTC is calculated at 08:00 each day in a control center in Switzerland, and the target frequency is then adjusted by up to ±0.02% from 50 Hz as needed, to ensure a long-term frequency average of exactly 3600×24×50 cycles per day is maintained.[16] In North America, whenever the error exceeds 10 seconds for the east, 3 seconds for Texas, or 2 seconds for the west, a correction of ±0.02 Hz (0.033%) is applied. Time error corrections start and end either on the hour or on the half hour.[17][18] A dynamicdemand.co.uk/grid - Real-time frequency meter for power generation in the United Kingdom is available online. Smaller power systems may not maintain frequency with the same degree of accuracy.
[edit]Frequency and load
The primary reason for accurate frequency control is to allow the flow of alternating current power from multiple generators through the network to be controlled. The trend in system frequency is a measure of mismatch between demand and generation, and so is a necessary parameter for load control in interconnected systems.
Frequency of the system will vary as load and generation change. Increasing the mechanical input power to a synchronous generator will not greatly affect the system frequency but will produce more electric power from that unit. During a severe overload caused by tripping or failure of generators or transmission lines the power system frequency will decline, due to an imbalance of load versus generation. Loss of an interconnection, while exporting power (relative to system total generation) will cause system frequency to rise. AGC (automatic generation control) is used to maintain scheduled frequency and interchange power flows. Control systems in power plants detect changes in the network-wide frequency and adjust mechanical power input to generators back to their target frequency. This counteracting usually takes a few tens of seconds due to the large rotating masses involved. Temporary frequency changes are an unavoidable consequence of changing demand. Exceptional or rapidly changing mains frequency is often a sign that an electricity distribution network is operating near its capacity limits, dramatic examples of which can sometimes be observed shortly before major outages.
Frequency protection relays on the power system network sense the decline of frequency and automatically initiate load shedding or tripping of interconnection lines, to preserve the operation of at least part of the network. Small frequency deviations (i.e.- 0.5 Hz on a 50 Hz or 60 Hz network) will result in automatic load shedding or other control actions to restore system frequency.
Smaller power systems, not extensively interconnected with many generators and loads, will not maintain frequency with the same degree of accuracy. Where system frequency is not tightly regulated during heavy load periods, the system operators may allow system frequency to rise during periods of light load, to maintain a daily average frequency of acceptable accuracy.[19][20]
[edit]Audible noise and interference
AC-powered appliances can give off a characteristic hum, often called "mains hum", at the multiples of the frequencies of AC power that they use. It is usually produced by motor and transformer core laminations vibrating in time with the magnetic field. This hum is often evident in poorly made audio amplifiers as well, where the power supply is inadequately filtered.
50 Hz power hum
60 Hz power hum
400 Hz power hum
Most countries chose their television vertical synchronization rate to approximate the local mains supply frequency. This helps prevent power line hum and magnetic interference from causing visible beat frequencies in the displayed picture of analog receivers, but is of diminishing importance in modern digital display systems.
[edit]See also
Mains electricity
Mains power systems
List of countries with mains power plugs, voltages and frequencies
Power connector
Sunday, December 20, 2009
speech at copenhegen
Following is the text of Shri Jairam Ramesh , Minister of State (independent charge) for Environment & Forests, Government Of India, At the high-level segment of the Un Climate Conference, Copenhagen, 16 December 2009.
“Mr. President, Excellencies, Ladies & Gentlemen,
It is my privilege to speak on behalf of the Government of India. We continue to derive inspiration from the Father of our nation, Mahatma Gandhi who is an icon for the environmental movement everywhere.
India is already and will be even more profoundly impacted by climate change. In many ways, we have the highest vulnerability on multiple dimensions. We have a tremendous obligation to our own people by way of both adaptation and mitigation policies and programmes. That is why we have already announced a number of ambitious measures proactively.
We have a detailed national action plan on climate change with eight focused national missions and twenty four critical initiatives. Under this plan, we have already launched a solar energy mission aimed at 20,000 Mw by 2022 and a domestic market-based mechanism for further stimulating energy efficiency in industry. Other national missions for accelerating afforestation, for promoting sustainable habitats, for expanding sustainable agriculture and for protecting the crucial Himalayan ecosystem are on the anvil. New GHG emission-reducing technologies in coal-based power generation are being deployed on a large-scale. Mandatory fuel efficiency standards in the transport sector will soon become a reality.
We have established our own version of an IPCC comprising more than 120 of our leading scientific and technological institutions to continuously measure, monitor and model the impacts of climate change on different sectors and in different regions of our country. In addition to establishing a nation-wide climate observatory network, we are going to launch our own satellite in 2011 to monitor GHG and aerosol emissions globally.
Derived from our detailed National Action Plan on Climate Change, we are now considering nationally accountable mitigation outcomes in different sectors like industry, energy, transport, building and forests. Over the last decade we have added over 3 million hectares to our forest cover and today our forest cover is sequestering close to 10% of our annual greenhouse gas emissions. We will endeavour to maintain that level.
India has been a major participant in the CDM. If all our projects are approved and implemented as scheduled by 2012, carbon credits amounting to a further 10% of our annual GHG emissions will be available to developed countries to enable them to meet their KP commitments.
We are convinced that a low-carbon strategy is an essential aspect of sustainable development. While we already have one of the lowest emissions intensity of the economy, we will do more. We are targeting a further emissions intensity decline of 20-25% by 2020 on 2005 levels. This is significant given our huge developmental imperatives.
Deeply conscious of our international responsibilities as well, we have already declared that our per capita emissions will never exceed the per capita emissions of the developed countries. We have recently unveiled projected GHG emissions profiles till the year 2030.
Aware of the need for enhanced transparency, we have suggested using the National Communication process, in a format and frequency to be agreed to, as a mechanism to reflect internationally the nature and impact of actions taken domestically. Let me add here that India has probably the most rigorous MRV system that any government can go through – with its democratic Parliament, activist judiciary, vigilant NGOs and watchful media.
We are transforming environmental governance systems. A judicial National Green Tribunal and an executive National Environmental Protection Agency is on the anvil. We have just announced a new generation of national ambient air quality standards that is on par with the strictest in the world.
Our entire approach to this Conference is anchored in the sanctity of the troika--the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Bali Action Plan. We believe that the well-known and widely accepted principles of (i) common but differentiated responsibility; and (ii) historical responsibilities are sacrosanct.
As a global goal, India subscribes to the view that the temperature increase ought not to exceed 2 degrees Celsius by 2050 from mid-19th century levels. But this objective must be firmly embedded in a demonstrably equitable access to atmospheric space, with adequate finance and technology available to all developing countries.
Excellencies, one of the two heads of state to address the first UN Conference on the Environment held in Stockholm thirty seven years back was Mrs. Indira Gandhi – the other being the host Prime Minister. What she said on the historic occasion brought the development agenda into the mainstream of the discourse on environmental concerns. We recall that message and reiterate our resolve to be integral part of the solution to global warming—now and always.”
“Mr. President, Excellencies, Ladies & Gentlemen,
It is my privilege to speak on behalf of the Government of India. We continue to derive inspiration from the Father of our nation, Mahatma Gandhi who is an icon for the environmental movement everywhere.
India is already and will be even more profoundly impacted by climate change. In many ways, we have the highest vulnerability on multiple dimensions. We have a tremendous obligation to our own people by way of both adaptation and mitigation policies and programmes. That is why we have already announced a number of ambitious measures proactively.
We have a detailed national action plan on climate change with eight focused national missions and twenty four critical initiatives. Under this plan, we have already launched a solar energy mission aimed at 20,000 Mw by 2022 and a domestic market-based mechanism for further stimulating energy efficiency in industry. Other national missions for accelerating afforestation, for promoting sustainable habitats, for expanding sustainable agriculture and for protecting the crucial Himalayan ecosystem are on the anvil. New GHG emission-reducing technologies in coal-based power generation are being deployed on a large-scale. Mandatory fuel efficiency standards in the transport sector will soon become a reality.
We have established our own version of an IPCC comprising more than 120 of our leading scientific and technological institutions to continuously measure, monitor and model the impacts of climate change on different sectors and in different regions of our country. In addition to establishing a nation-wide climate observatory network, we are going to launch our own satellite in 2011 to monitor GHG and aerosol emissions globally.
Derived from our detailed National Action Plan on Climate Change, we are now considering nationally accountable mitigation outcomes in different sectors like industry, energy, transport, building and forests. Over the last decade we have added over 3 million hectares to our forest cover and today our forest cover is sequestering close to 10% of our annual greenhouse gas emissions. We will endeavour to maintain that level.
India has been a major participant in the CDM. If all our projects are approved and implemented as scheduled by 2012, carbon credits amounting to a further 10% of our annual GHG emissions will be available to developed countries to enable them to meet their KP commitments.
We are convinced that a low-carbon strategy is an essential aspect of sustainable development. While we already have one of the lowest emissions intensity of the economy, we will do more. We are targeting a further emissions intensity decline of 20-25% by 2020 on 2005 levels. This is significant given our huge developmental imperatives.
Deeply conscious of our international responsibilities as well, we have already declared that our per capita emissions will never exceed the per capita emissions of the developed countries. We have recently unveiled projected GHG emissions profiles till the year 2030.
Aware of the need for enhanced transparency, we have suggested using the National Communication process, in a format and frequency to be agreed to, as a mechanism to reflect internationally the nature and impact of actions taken domestically. Let me add here that India has probably the most rigorous MRV system that any government can go through – with its democratic Parliament, activist judiciary, vigilant NGOs and watchful media.
We are transforming environmental governance systems. A judicial National Green Tribunal and an executive National Environmental Protection Agency is on the anvil. We have just announced a new generation of national ambient air quality standards that is on par with the strictest in the world.
Our entire approach to this Conference is anchored in the sanctity of the troika--the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol and the Bali Action Plan. We believe that the well-known and widely accepted principles of (i) common but differentiated responsibility; and (ii) historical responsibilities are sacrosanct.
As a global goal, India subscribes to the view that the temperature increase ought not to exceed 2 degrees Celsius by 2050 from mid-19th century levels. But this objective must be firmly embedded in a demonstrably equitable access to atmospheric space, with adequate finance and technology available to all developing countries.
Excellencies, one of the two heads of state to address the first UN Conference on the Environment held in Stockholm thirty seven years back was Mrs. Indira Gandhi – the other being the host Prime Minister. What she said on the historic occasion brought the development agenda into the mainstream of the discourse on environmental concerns. We recall that message and reiterate our resolve to be integral part of the solution to global warming—now and always.”
PPP-NHRM
National Rural Health Mission [NRHM] was launched in April 2005 with thrust on creating a fully functional platform for health care at all levels, from the village, the Sub-Centre, the Primary Health Centre, the Community Health Centre, the District Hospital to the District and State levels with the prime objective of providing quality services that are affordable, accessible and accountable. The NRHM Mission document has also articulated the need for Public Private Partnerships. NRHM encourages training and up-gradation of skills for public-private providers wherever such efforts are likely to improve quality of services for the poor.
Some of the examples of successful models of Public Private Partnership under NRHM are: [i] Tamil Nadu Government’s Criteria for Accreditation of Public-Private providers undertaken as part of the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) for institutional delivery. [ii] Franchising, as per agreed standards and costs as attempted by the Surya Clinics of Janani in Bihar, [iii] Yeshasvini Trust Health Insurance partnerships in Karnataka for standard surgeries at agreed costs [iv] Chiranjeevi Scheme of Gujarat to involve private sector Gynaecologists for institutional delivery of Below Poverty Line women, [v] Initiative by Government of West Bengal in partnerships with the private sector for its Mobile Health Clinics, [vi] Outsourcing of diagnostic tests successfully attempted in Bihar and West Bengal [vii] community worker programme of Mitanins, ASHAs and link workers in some States involving private organizations on a very large scale in facilitation, training and resource support. [viii] The successful management of PHCs in Arunachal Pradesh by Karuna Trust, Voluntary Health Association of India and other organizations. [ix] Emergency Medical Relief Programme (EMRI) of Andhra Pradesh.
This information was given by Shri Ghulam Nabi Azad, Union Minister of Health & Family Welfare in a written reply to a question in the Lok Sabha today.
Some of the examples of successful models of Public Private Partnership under NRHM are: [i] Tamil Nadu Government’s Criteria for Accreditation of Public-Private providers undertaken as part of the Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) for institutional delivery. [ii] Franchising, as per agreed standards and costs as attempted by the Surya Clinics of Janani in Bihar, [iii] Yeshasvini Trust Health Insurance partnerships in Karnataka for standard surgeries at agreed costs [iv] Chiranjeevi Scheme of Gujarat to involve private sector Gynaecologists for institutional delivery of Below Poverty Line women, [v] Initiative by Government of West Bengal in partnerships with the private sector for its Mobile Health Clinics, [vi] Outsourcing of diagnostic tests successfully attempted in Bihar and West Bengal [vii] community worker programme of Mitanins, ASHAs and link workers in some States involving private organizations on a very large scale in facilitation, training and resource support. [viii] The successful management of PHCs in Arunachal Pradesh by Karuna Trust, Voluntary Health Association of India and other organizations. [ix] Emergency Medical Relief Programme (EMRI) of Andhra Pradesh.
This information was given by Shri Ghulam Nabi Azad, Union Minister of Health & Family Welfare in a written reply to a question in the Lok Sabha today.
Tuesday, December 15, 2009
new states
climate change affect everyone.so solution by everyone.
CDR,ADOPTION TECHNOLOGY,FUND
NEW STATES:
1.ADM N DEVELOPMENT REGIONS
2.VOTORS WILL BE MORE INFORMED
3.INTER-STATE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE WILL increase
4.all new states-chatis,jhar,utt have more pci than the parent states
5.cost benefit analysis
CDR,ADOPTION TECHNOLOGY,FUND
NEW STATES:
1.ADM N DEVELOPMENT REGIONS
2.VOTORS WILL BE MORE INFORMED
3.INTER-STATE MOVEMENT OF PEOPLE WILL increase
4.all new states-chatis,jhar,utt have more pci than the parent states
5.cost benefit analysis
Saturday, December 12, 2009
Thursday, December 10, 2009
http://pib.nic.in/release/release.asp?relid=55373
Newly established Central Universities have recently been advised to design and construct their buildings as ‘green buildings’. The basic feature of ‘green buildings’ include energy efficient designing of the envelope, conservation of natural resources, integration of renewable energy systems into the design, and use of energy efficient devices in the building. While the cost of construction of such buildings will be met out of the grants released by the University Grants Commission for campus development,
The similarity in our world views is a strong pillar of our friendship. Cooperation between India and Russia in international forums like the United Nations and the G-20 is an important factor in addressing key global challenges and in shaping a world order that promotes our common prosperity and security.
The similarity in our world views is a strong pillar of our friendship. Cooperation between India and Russia in international forums like the United Nations and the G-20 is an important factor in addressing key global challenges and in shaping a world order that promotes our common prosperity and security.
More Crop and Income per Drop”.
t has been said that just as the conflicts of the 20th century were often over the sharing of scarce petroleum resources, those of the 21st century will probably be over the sharing of water. Some estimates suggest that world food demand could double in the next two decades. That will translate into a huge demand for water. Further stress on scarce water resources will be caused by population growth, the majority of which will be dependent on agriculture; industry and will lead to urbanization. Nowhere are these challenges more pressing than in Asia.
In our country, we are already struggling every year with floods in one part of the country and droughts in other parts of our country. This year, we had severe floods in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. At the same time around 300 districts of the country were declared as being drought affected. These imbalances will only intensify with climatic distortions that are now on the horizon. Moreover, there are concerns that climate change may also adversely impact on ground water table and its quality, affecting thereby productivity of the cropping systems.
Some of the key action areas of the “National Water Mission” are:
* Placing of a comprehensive water data base in the public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources;
* Promotion of citizen and State actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation;
* Focused attention to over-exploited areas;
* Increasing water use efficiency by at least 20%; and,
* Promotion of basin level integrated water resource management.
We need to increase investment in agricultural technologies, particularly those related to improved crop practices, water savings, design of storage structures & more efficient farm implements. The first Green Revolution came due to innovations developed in the public sector. The second Green Revolution may well come from technologies developed in the private sector. It is therefore essential that private investment and innovation be incorporated within a broader vision and strategy of development in the agriculture and water sectors.
In our country, we are already struggling every year with floods in one part of the country and droughts in other parts of our country. This year, we had severe floods in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and elsewhere. At the same time around 300 districts of the country were declared as being drought affected. These imbalances will only intensify with climatic distortions that are now on the horizon. Moreover, there are concerns that climate change may also adversely impact on ground water table and its quality, affecting thereby productivity of the cropping systems.
Some of the key action areas of the “National Water Mission” are:
* Placing of a comprehensive water data base in the public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources;
* Promotion of citizen and State actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation;
* Focused attention to over-exploited areas;
* Increasing water use efficiency by at least 20%; and,
* Promotion of basin level integrated water resource management.
We need to increase investment in agricultural technologies, particularly those related to improved crop practices, water savings, design of storage structures & more efficient farm implements. The first Green Revolution came due to innovations developed in the public sector. The second Green Revolution may well come from technologies developed in the private sector. It is therefore essential that private investment and innovation be incorporated within a broader vision and strategy of development in the agriculture and water sectors.
Wednesday, December 9, 2009
10.12.09
Main Akela Hi Chala Tha Janebe Manjil Magar Log Milte Gaye aur Carvan Banta Gaya
at the height of the global economic crisis Amartya Sen had stressed, in a perceptive essay, the need for an economic system that is, as he put it, “more decent” and “based on social values that we can defend ethically.” The model of Social Business developed by Professor Muhammad Yunus suggests one possible option in that quest. Its practical relevance and mobilising potential is evident. Its potential needs to be fully explored.
Prof. Yunus has revolutionized the idea of micro credit and made it accessible to the poorest of the poor. His declaration that “Credit is a human right” is a powerful expression of what he believes in. He has brought about a paradigm shift in reaching out to the dispossessed and the disinherited. His work has especially touched poor women and empowered them.
at the height of the global economic crisis Amartya Sen had stressed, in a perceptive essay, the need for an economic system that is, as he put it, “more decent” and “based on social values that we can defend ethically.” The model of Social Business developed by Professor Muhammad Yunus suggests one possible option in that quest. Its practical relevance and mobilising potential is evident. Its potential needs to be fully explored.
Prof. Yunus has revolutionized the idea of micro credit and made it accessible to the poorest of the poor. His declaration that “Credit is a human right” is a powerful expression of what he believes in. He has brought about a paradigm shift in reaching out to the dispossessed and the disinherited. His work has especially touched poor women and empowered them.
Tuesday, December 8, 2009
Saturday, November 28, 2009
Thursday, July 2, 2009
JR
The Government is preparing a roadmap for judicial reforms in the country which aims, inter alia, at reducing pendency in the courts, introducing accountability of the judges and bringing in transparency in judicial processes for the litigants. Apart from taking appropriate legislative measures, capacity building in the judiciary, through steps such as application for information and communication technology, financial assistance for development of infrastructure and the setting up of more courts have been taken up for this purpose.
The Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008 which has been notified in the official gazette on 9th January 2009 has not as yet come into force for the States to which it applies as the response of the States for implementation of the Act is still awaited.
The Gram Nyayalayas Act 2008 which has been notified in the official gazette on 9th January 2009 has not as yet come into force for the States to which it applies as the response of the States for implementation of the Act is still awaited.
Monday, June 8, 2009
Saturday, June 6, 2009
Infra
need for PC-
Debate for various issues
targeting of subsidies-kerosene
monitoring of implementation
Food security Act-
PDS shold be revamped
identification of poor
legal n investor friendly PPP
PPP-private partner get a stake in public projects n gets incentive
need for constant review
affordable housing
bottom of the pyramid
no dearth of policy and programed but lack of implementation
no quick fix solution
political will to insure the implementations
road map
outlay--------->Outcome
quality of spending
Debate for various issues
targeting of subsidies-kerosene
monitoring of implementation
Food security Act-
PDS shold be revamped
identification of poor
legal n investor friendly PPP
PPP-private partner get a stake in public projects n gets incentive
need for constant review
affordable housing
bottom of the pyramid
no dearth of policy and programed but lack of implementation
no quick fix solution
political will to insure the implementations
road map
outlay--------->Outcome
quality of spending
Friday, June 5, 2009
ACR
erformance appraisal: Govt takes a cue from private sector
Anindita Dey / Mumbai June 06, 2009, 0:49 IST
Assessment reports will be shared with all employees
Also Read
Related Stories
News Now
- Next five years will be era of judicial reforms: Moily
- A K Bhattacharya: Permanence is power
- More of the same
- Mystery shrouds Moily, Bharadwaj exclusion
- Moily removed from AICC media head
- Moily removed as AICC media head
Also Read
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News Now
- Sensex pares gains on profit booking
- FIIs net buyers of Rs 832cr in cash mkt today
- Hummer sale needs Chinese authorities nod: report
- G K Pillai new Home Secretary
- Nokia unveils 'take-back' campaign
- Corporate, banks control over 50% of MF assets
More
The central government has decided to shed the cloak of secrecy over the performance appraisal of its 3.3 million employees. Taking a cue from the practice followed in most top private companies, the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions has done away with the confidential nature of the performance appraisal system and has made the process more consultative and transparent.
Under the new system, the appraiser will have to discuss the details of the annual performance report with the employee concerned, including the overall grade and assessment of integrity. The report must also include the employee’s remarks.
The ministry has also changed the name of such reports from Annual Confidential Reports to Annual Performance Assessment Reports.
The new system came into effect from April 1 this year.
The sections/departments of the government in charge of maintaining the annual performance reports have also been directed to disclose the contents of these reports to the officers concerned.
The new system follows the recommendations of the 10th report of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission under Veerappa Moily.
It marks a huge change from the earlier confidential appraisal system that meant any adverse remarks were communicated to the employee concerned only if a specific representation was made to the designated authorities.
Employees who do not agree with the appraisal outcome are now free to make representations against the comments or the final grading within 15 days of receiving the report. The appraisal reports will be treated as final only if no representation is made.
To make sure that this doesn’t become an unending saga, in case of a difference of opinion between the appraiser and the employee, a higher authority will have to take a final call on the appraisal within 30 days.
Anindita Dey / Mumbai June 06, 2009, 0:49 IST
Assessment reports will be shared with all employees
Also Read
Related Stories
News Now
- Next five years will be era of judicial reforms: Moily
- A K Bhattacharya: Permanence is power
- More of the same
- Mystery shrouds Moily, Bharadwaj exclusion
- Moily removed from AICC media head
- Moily removed as AICC media head
Also Read
Related Stories
News Now
- Sensex pares gains on profit booking
- FIIs net buyers of Rs 832cr in cash mkt today
- Hummer sale needs Chinese authorities nod: report
- G K Pillai new Home Secretary
- Nokia unveils 'take-back' campaign
- Corporate, banks control over 50% of MF assets
More
The central government has decided to shed the cloak of secrecy over the performance appraisal of its 3.3 million employees. Taking a cue from the practice followed in most top private companies, the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions has done away with the confidential nature of the performance appraisal system and has made the process more consultative and transparent.
Under the new system, the appraiser will have to discuss the details of the annual performance report with the employee concerned, including the overall grade and assessment of integrity. The report must also include the employee’s remarks.
The ministry has also changed the name of such reports from Annual Confidential Reports to Annual Performance Assessment Reports.
The new system came into effect from April 1 this year.
The sections/departments of the government in charge of maintaining the annual performance reports have also been directed to disclose the contents of these reports to the officers concerned.
The new system follows the recommendations of the 10th report of the Second Administrative Reforms Commission under Veerappa Moily.
It marks a huge change from the earlier confidential appraisal system that meant any adverse remarks were communicated to the employee concerned only if a specific representation was made to the designated authorities.
Employees who do not agree with the appraisal outcome are now free to make representations against the comments or the final grading within 15 days of receiving the report. The appraisal reports will be treated as final only if no representation is made.
To make sure that this doesn’t become an unending saga, in case of a difference of opinion between the appraiser and the employee, a higher authority will have to take a final call on the appraisal within 30 days.
Sunday, April 5, 2009
G-20
PM Manmohana singh has given the sppech at G-20 Summit-
Financial meltdown is a global problem it need the global solotion
This meeting provideds the convergence of ideas and minds that will fructify in making the regulatory rules and global governance. About $1.1 trillion will be injected in the economy.Our Pm has reiterated his views gainst the protectionism against the free trade.
Sustainable globlosation
Gren rEcovery
To Strengten and reform in global Institutions.
To acheive the stated objective -"all of our pledges should be transalted into action ".
Wednesday, March 4, 2009
Paulo Cohelo
When someone wants something, they must know why they are fighting. This is the only reason to seek a reward.
(The Pilgrimage)
God is love, generosity and forgiveness; if we believe in this, we will never allow our weaknesses to paralyse us.
(The Valkyries)
We lose many things simply out of our fear of losing them.
(Brida)
Just before a dream is fulfilled, the Soul of the World decides to test everything that was learned on the journey.
(The Alchemist)
God is always the same, even though he may have a thousand names; but you need to choose a name to call him by.
(By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept)
“A person who goes in search of God is wasting his time. he can walk a thousand roads and join many religions and sects- but he’ll never find God that way. God is here, right now, at our side. In order to find God, you have to only to look around.”
(By the River Piedra I sat down and wept)
If pain must come, may it come quickly. I have a life to live, and I need to live it in the best possible. If he has to make a choice, may he make it now. Then I will either wait for him or forget him. Waiting is painful. Forgetting is painful. But not knowing which to do is the worst kind of suffering.
(By the River Piedra I sat down and wept)
(The Pilgrimage)
God is love, generosity and forgiveness; if we believe in this, we will never allow our weaknesses to paralyse us.
(The Valkyries)
We lose many things simply out of our fear of losing them.
(Brida)
Just before a dream is fulfilled, the Soul of the World decides to test everything that was learned on the journey.
(The Alchemist)
God is always the same, even though he may have a thousand names; but you need to choose a name to call him by.
(By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Wept)
“A person who goes in search of God is wasting his time. he can walk a thousand roads and join many religions and sects- but he’ll never find God that way. God is here, right now, at our side. In order to find God, you have to only to look around.”
(By the River Piedra I sat down and wept)
If pain must come, may it come quickly. I have a life to live, and I need to live it in the best possible. If he has to make a choice, may he make it now. Then I will either wait for him or forget him. Waiting is painful. Forgetting is painful. But not knowing which to do is the worst kind of suffering.
(By the River Piedra I sat down and wept)
Sunday, March 1, 2009
news
coordinated financial action by both developed and developing countries
45 banks fails in USA
Child below 5 yrs polio drop max in UP+Bihar(polio PI ans p-3 virus)
45 banks fails in USA
Child below 5 yrs polio drop max in UP+Bihar(polio PI ans p-3 virus)
Friday, February 27, 2009
HT summit
Removal of abject poverty
per hectare
"GRowth is the only way to remove proverty"
sustain high economic growth for 20 yr
labour force
10 commendmets to live by
wroonful udse of any religion
wrk is wrkship
homour senier citizenship
value knwlege
save public property
Zero tolrance for corruption
influential democrac
NREGA,RTI
per hectare
"GRowth is the only way to remove proverty"
sustain high economic growth for 20 yr
labour force
10 commendmets to live by
wroonful udse of any religion
wrk is wrkship
homour senier citizenship
value knwlege
save public property
Zero tolrance for corruption
influential democrac
NREGA,RTI
slowdown
Finacial slowdown
Reason for less impact on INdia
hindsight(hi:ndsight)
role of goverment
mareket palying god
CRR
Indigenous factor
Incentivisation is the one of the factor that has contributed in this
What are scheme?- ethical appropriate
koopundook-smugness-25% poor ans malnourished principle
country which take risk they take sme pain
capitalism -growth by crisis
public sector inefficiency-
finaancial inclusion
600 district
6 lakh villages
Indian bank was nationalized in 1969
we should follow our own model
incremental step
Capital convertibility-
innovation will be decreased-but this is the chance for us to take the oppoutunty
public Space
public product
end of the tunnel
financial crisis need political solution globallly
our strentgh-GDP 7.1%,1/3 economy is immune ,Infra sector,SSI hurting
liquidity can be generated
Reason for less impact on INdia
hindsight(hi:ndsight)
role of goverment
mareket palying god
CRR
Indigenous factor
Incentivisation is the one of the factor that has contributed in this
What are scheme?- ethical appropriate
koopundook-smugness-25% poor ans malnourished principle
country which take risk they take sme pain
capitalism -growth by crisis
public sector inefficiency-
finaancial inclusion
600 district
6 lakh villages
Indian bank was nationalized in 1969
we should follow our own model
incremental step
Capital convertibility-
innovation will be decreased-but this is the chance for us to take the oppoutunty
public Space
public product
end of the tunnel
financial crisis need political solution globallly
our strentgh-GDP 7.1%,1/3 economy is immune ,Infra sector,SSI hurting
liquidity can be generated
Thursday, February 26, 2009
Regional disparities
Social integration
demographic dividend
service sector industries can be located at any part with ease
intra-party democracy
planning at local level- decentralized planning that should take care of the local resources
demographic dividend
service sector industries can be located at any part with ease
intra-party democracy
planning at local level- decentralized planning that should take care of the local resources
daily
today i have wated my time so much
i have to concentrate more on question and answers and search on UP
coz time is running out
2 hr daily thinking process for question and answers.
i have to concentrate more on question and answers and search on UP
coz time is running out
2 hr daily thinking process for question and answers.
Rural-Urban
The Government of India has adopted a two pronged approach for tackling rural poverty and rural-urban migration in the country: firstly by providing basic amenities in rural areas through schemes like Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Bharat Nirman, Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme, National Rural Health Mission, Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and Mid Day Meal (MDM) Scheme; & secondly by targeted employment generation schemes like Swarna Jayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), Sampoorna Grameen Rozgar Yojana (SGRY), and the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS).
Wednesday, February 25, 2009
Satyam
The Government has also introduced Companies Bill, 2008 in the Lok Sabha to provide for a comprehensive revision of the Companies Act, 1956 including, inter alia, provisions that would enable more effective checks against irregularities/frauds by companies.
The events relating to Satyam Computer Services Ltd. relate to a particular company and do not represent a failure of the regulatory system and relevant regulatory authorities.The events relating to Satyam Computer Services Ltd. relate to a particular company and do not represent a failure of the regulatory system and relevant regulatory authorities.
Government has set up an electronic registry with round - the clock - access through internet. The Government has powers of inspection of the books of accounts of companies and also to investigate their affairs, if need be, under the Act. In addition, the Act provides for appointment of independent, statutory auditors to audit the accounts and report to the shareholders.
The events relating to Satyam Computer Services Ltd. relate to a particular company and do not represent a failure of the regulatory system and relevant regulatory authorities.The events relating to Satyam Computer Services Ltd. relate to a particular company and do not represent a failure of the regulatory system and relevant regulatory authorities.
Government has set up an electronic registry with round - the clock - access through internet. The Government has powers of inspection of the books of accounts of companies and also to investigate their affairs, if need be, under the Act. In addition, the Act provides for appointment of independent, statutory auditors to audit the accounts and report to the shareholders.
River
There were some press reports in
In July 2006, an agreement was signed between Government of India and Royal Government of Bhutan on cooperation in Hydropower sector by which Government of India (GoI) agreed to import 5000 MW of hydropower from Royal Government of Bhutan (RGoB) by 2020. During the visit of Hon'ble Prime Minister of India to
In order to formulate the flood forecasts on transboarder rivers originating from
The matter relating to the problem of floods caused by the rivers originating from Bhutan and coming to India are discussed in a Joint Group of Experts (JGE) on Flood Management constituted between India and Bhutan to discuss and assess the probable causes and effects of the recurring floods and erosion in the southern foothills of Bhutan and adjoining plains in India and recommend to both Governments appropriate and mutually acceptable remedial measures. Two meetings of JGE have been held between
Further, Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)has informed that they have currently taken up 10 number of schemes with a total estimated cost of Rs.97.42 crores to protect Bodoland area from flood and erosion.
The major rivers entering into
The names of the rivers alongwith the power plants that have been set up through Government of India's cooperation are as below:
River Hydroelectric Project
Wangchu. i) Chukha Hydro-electric project
ii) Tala Hydro-electric project
Kurichu Kurichhu Hydro-electric project
(Tributary of river Manas)
Punatsangchhu Punatsangchhu-I (Under Construction)
(Tributary of river Sonkosh)
This information was given by the Minister of State for Water Resources, Shri Jai Prakash Narayan Yadav in a written reply in the Rajya Sabha today.
Tuesday, February 24, 2009
Agriculture
Shri Pawar said that it is because of research and adoption of new technologies that India’s foodgrain production since 1950 has gone up four times, that of commercial crops by six times, fisheries nine times, milk six times and eggs 27 times. It is high time for our scientists to analyse problems being faced by the agriculture sector and evolve technologies appropriate for our country, which other developing nations can also adopt, he said.
tax
- What is the incidence of indirect tax in India?
- According to Vijay Kelkar, if you add various local taxes to VAT at the central and state level, the incidence of indirect tax today is close to 30%.
- The best fiscal stimulus that can be delivered is by reducing the total incidence of indirect tax from 30% to a single GST rate of, say, 17%.
- The 17% GST can be shared in the ratio of 4:4:2 between the Centre, states and the local civic bodies. According to Kelkar the economic value of this GST reform could be $500 billion and has an employment potential of 4-5 million.
Monday, February 23, 2009
labour
enior level representatives of the three pillars of the tripartism, Trade Unions, Employers, Associations and Government, participated in the deliberations of the conference. The conference deliberations focused on four key concerns relating to the world of work, namely, global financial crisis and its impact on employment, contractualisation of labour and issues related to migrant workers, role of social partners in skill development and employability and issues relating to sales promotion employees in India.
AUDIT
- Audit
- Two important aspects of regulating the audit firms revolve around the availability of choice and accountability. Audit choice can be increased by: reducing barriers to entry (for example many institutional investors demand a Big Four auditor at the time of investment); changing the perception of corporates that the Big Four are the only audit firms that can service them; and looking at changes at the regulatory level such as joint audit, which has worked very well in France for the last many years.
- There is a definite need for greater accountability of audit firms. All of the Big Four are networks operating as independent units in each of the countries they operate in. This implies that if some mishap occurs in one country, such as Satyam in India, the global operation cannot be held responsible, accountable and liable. On the one hand, these firms advocate that they use their international systems, techniques and experience and on the other hand, they tend to localise accountability.
- Move over navaratnas; it is time for mahanavaratnas
- The department of public enterprises (DPE) has reportedly decided to wait for a year before bestowing higher functional and financial autonomy to nine top performers among 18 navratna companies by carving out a new category of mahanavratnas.
- The Planning Commission had recommended mahanavratna status to Bhel, Bharat Petroleum, Hindustan Aeronautics, Hindustan Petroleum, Indian Oil, NMDC, Power Grid Corporation, REC and SAIL.
- Mahanavratna status would have given these companies freedom to make investments up to 50% of their net worth—the sum of its equity capital and reserves—while the investment cap on a single project would have gone up to 25% of their net worth. The tag will also have given them greater functional autonomy for forming joint ventures.
Friday, February 20, 2009
ET
INDIAis probably running a very large stimulus package considering the problems it is facing vis-Ã -vis high fiscal deficit. High public debt and historically large fiscal deficit have stretched our public finances. While it is important to reduce the short-term pain of lower growth, it cannot be at the cost of high inflation, lower growth or both in the future. The fine balance required to manage prudence and stimulus is something which will be difficult to expect from a pollbound government but not much from the seasoned regulators.
India will also face the head wind of drop in future savings rate as government turns from saver to spender. It also needs to keep in mind that FY09 growth to some extent is front-ended by its stimulative policy aka high fiscal deficit. The back-ended price for the same needs to be kept in mind.
The government needs to focus on execution and efficiency. It needs to get bigger bang out of every buck that it is spending. Instead of spending money it needs to invest money wisely. Building check dams improves water level and helps in improving agriculture yield. Building kuccha road that exists only on map or will get washed away in monsoon doesn’t help any one. The government needs to attract capital flows into the country to augment shortfalls in savings which is so necessary to maintain investment and consequently the growth momentum. Our policies and execution need to be benchmarked against, say, Chinese standards and attempt should be made to outperform them.
Maintaining public finance under check will be a critical factor in generating investor confidence. Divestment, efficient tax collection, subsidy rationalisation and aggressive push to cut cost and wasteful expenditure are something which the government should implement on a priority basis. In an uncertain environment, it is critical to keep investor confidence high. If the government can stop contradictory communication from different heads, it will boost investor confidence. While there is a cost for financial stimulus package, there is only gain from the above referred alternative package. It will just require a nation to work together to overcome current tough environment.
Including offbudget items and state deficits, the overall fiscal deficit is already about 11% in the current financial year and will be at best one percentage point lower in 2009-10.
1.Goverment should be more specific to Implment the progrma
2. Build the capital generating infra
3.All ministries should expend the alocated resources
4. Insustry should reduce the profit margin and increse the revenue and consumer base
5. Capacity building in many areas so that as soon as world recover we are fready to face it
multi-pronged strategy to tackle illegal immigration from Bangladesh. This included border fencing, round-the-clock border surveillance, increasing the number of border outposts to 1,185 and induction of high-tech surveillance equipment like night vision devices.
the unchecked infiltration of Bangladeshis into the state had changed the demographic profile
India will also face the head wind of drop in future savings rate as government turns from saver to spender. It also needs to keep in mind that FY09 growth to some extent is front-ended by its stimulative policy aka high fiscal deficit. The back-ended price for the same needs to be kept in mind.
The government needs to focus on execution and efficiency. It needs to get bigger bang out of every buck that it is spending. Instead of spending money it needs to invest money wisely. Building check dams improves water level and helps in improving agriculture yield. Building kuccha road that exists only on map or will get washed away in monsoon doesn’t help any one. The government needs to attract capital flows into the country to augment shortfalls in savings which is so necessary to maintain investment and consequently the growth momentum. Our policies and execution need to be benchmarked against, say, Chinese standards and attempt should be made to outperform them.
Maintaining public finance under check will be a critical factor in generating investor confidence. Divestment, efficient tax collection, subsidy rationalisation and aggressive push to cut cost and wasteful expenditure are something which the government should implement on a priority basis. In an uncertain environment, it is critical to keep investor confidence high. If the government can stop contradictory communication from different heads, it will boost investor confidence. While there is a cost for financial stimulus package, there is only gain from the above referred alternative package. It will just require a nation to work together to overcome current tough environment.
Including offbudget items and state deficits, the overall fiscal deficit is already about 11% in the current financial year and will be at best one percentage point lower in 2009-10.
1.Goverment should be more specific to Implment the progrma
2. Build the capital generating infra
3.All ministries should expend the alocated resources
4. Insustry should reduce the profit margin and increse the revenue and consumer base
5. Capacity building in many areas so that as soon as world recover we are fready to face it
multi-pronged strategy to tackle illegal immigration from Bangladesh. This included border fencing, round-the-clock border surveillance, increasing the number of border outposts to 1,185 and induction of high-tech surveillance equipment like night vision devices.
the unchecked infiltration of Bangladeshis into the state had changed the demographic profile
Wednesday, February 18, 2009
ias interview
- Expand CRR & SLR? what the present rate?Who was the framers of our Indian Constitution?
- Who created the cartoon show of Allauddin the Magic or Arabian nights?
- Expand the term U.A.R & W.F.T.U?
- Name any two Italian World Famous Painters?
- Who is the mughal emporor prohibited the use of Tobacco?
- Who is Brutus Mercus?
- tell me something about pink city of India?
- Name few Stock market shares of BSE sensex?
- What is the India's place in egg production?
- Who quoted - Et Tu, Brute!
1) Which country is having Chess as their national game?
Ans : Berlin i think so.. not sure ..
2) Who wrote the book "Drain of India's Wealth " ?
Ans: Dadabhai Naoroji.
3) 1st phase of Indian National Congress?
Ans: a) on Dec 1885 INC was founded by A.O.Hume.
b) Its 1st session held on Dec 28 at Gokuldas Deshpal Sanskrit College , Bombay.
c) Its chairman was W.C. Banerjee.
4) When did Spilting of Congress took place?
Ans : Spliting of Congress took place in the year 1907. at Surat session between Extrimist & Moderates.
5) Just say in ur opinon about Gadar Party?
Ans: a) Founded by Ras Bhihari Gosh, Raja Mahindra Pratap, L. Hardayal, Abdul Rehman in USA & Cannada.
b) Secret leaked out , British captured & arrested Gadar party leader.
6) When did Olympics started? in which country?
Ans : The History of Olympics is about Twenty Eight hundred years old.
(Set - 2)
1) Who invented Computer for the first time?
Ans: Charles Babagge.
2) Who is the London great comedian?
Ans: Charlie Chaplin A London very Famous Great Comedian & also Producer. from the year 1889 - 1977.Later he became Film Star.
3) Who is the producer of Titanic?
Ans: James Cameroon.
4) Who invented Bicycle?
Ans: Macmillin in 1842.
5) Explain about common wealth games? were it started? in which Country?
Ans: Commonwealth games started in Melbourne for first time.
Courtesy : indianofficer.com
Tuesday, February 17, 2009
FDI
- LLPs set to be allowed w.e.f 01.04.2009
- Limited Liability Partnerships, is the format that will allow professionals, traders and even producers of goods to conduct their business without worrying about losing their personal assets due to lapses of other partners.
- An LLP would be taxed for its income while the income of individual partners would be tax free; a benefit that is not available to companies. Companies pay tax on their profits and again pay dividend distribution tax when they distribute profits among shareholders. The LLP format protects partners from double taxation.
- The government announced new rules for calculating the FDI in a corporate entity.
- Now, FII holdings, ADRs/GDRs, NRI investment and foreign investment through foreign currency convertible bonds would all be included while calculating FDI levels of Indian companies. These instruments were not part of the FDI calculation till now. An announcement specifying the compliance period is expected within a week. The current proposal is to fix August 31 as the last date for compliance with the new FDI norms, and the final deadline would be finalised after inter-ministerial consultations.
Monday, February 16, 2009
Buget 2008-9
Basic quality education
employment
NREGS
Agriculture
INfra
rural deve
fiscal prudence
fiscal devolution
GDP-7.5/9.5/9.7
IE-over 9% 3 consecutive yrs
PErcapita-4.5%
FIscal deficit-2.6
reve-1.1
investemnet-39%
saving rate-37%
GCF in Agri-14.2%-07-08
tax/gdp-12.5
inspiring leadership
2008 our granery are full
food-230mtoons 07-8
manu-9.4
commu n constra
foregin trae-35% of GDP
Marco ecomonmic-capital inflow -9% of GDP
inflation 08-09- crude iol-28(03-4)-147 in 08
WPI-13% in aug 08- 4.4 present
Global finncial crisis-sep 08 -investment.mortage n broking
USA/EU n japan
fiscal stimulus
credit availability
removal of import n export ban
procedural problem
libral n transparent FDI
FDI-32.4b 07-8
Extraordinary circumstances need extranodianay measures
Additional fiscal measures
13th FC-fiscal consolodation
policy reform for competitive
"growth with equity"
"social security net"
equitable -economic growth should be sustanable
inclusive "
NCMP-growth more inclusive
"faster n inclusive growth"
Agri-60% pop in villages
03-08 plan aallocatio
Rastiya krsihi viaksa yojna-4000 crores
04-doubleing the flow the growth of credit-250000 crores
reviavl pacage
interest subvention-shaort term loan -3% /annum
debt waiver scheme-65000 crores
Targeted PDS /CIP
annotadaya anna yojna
Remunerative prices for farmers
wheat-1080
rice
Rural development-RIDF-14000crore
RIDA-4000 crores
60 lakhs houses constructed under Indira awas yojna
Incentive -3F
Development of POSt- Project "ARROW" to revitaise its core operation
Litracy
universal
MMR
IMR
gender Equality
livlihood
UNiversalise education-Secondary
Higher education-Skill n knowlegede -900% increse in aloocation in 11th FYP
15 CEntral UNi
IIT-pun,bhiar,ap,rah,orisaa,guj
UP n HP in 2009
IISR-bhopal,pune
2 scholl of planning Viajaywada n bhopal
6 IIM
educational schems
500 ITI upgarder as centre of excelllece
skill devenpmt mission
Socail sector
Empowerment of women
Minority -new ministry-15 point programmes
ST n frorest dweler -2007 legal right on their land
NSKFDC-safai
cRedit link
RMkosh
"Priyadarsani"-Rural employment women
Indira G penssion scheme-65 n above BPL
IGDisability -(
IF window-200(40-60)
18-40- Pririrty to give admission in ITI -500pm
NHIS-22State n UT
AAM admi Beema yojna-
Roral landless schaem-
PSU-11 lakj
CPUprofits -91000 crores
loss makeing -55
profit-158 making
implementaio n of CPSE corpotate
NIF-75% social sector scheme n 25% to use the profitable n reviable to sick(1815 crore)
PSU bank
NPA-2.3% in 08
Securirt market
FII Traing n reserach iNstitute
transparent
aompanies ACt-Amendment
Tax system
personal IT
custom duty rate
excise duty
GST-April 2010
e-filing of return
taxpayer information system
TAx adm -functional stabity
compliance leve;
109 marrie vessaal for custom
ARC-
acoounablee suastable n efficent
delivet system
RTI
public dession making
6th PC-45lakh centaral n 38 lakh pensiores
buget 9lkah crore-08-09
plan-2.8 lakh crore
add plan-
centarl
JNURUM
Sunami
NOM plan-1.8
food subsidy
agric debt waiver
pension
telecommution
Central assiatance
NOn tAx revenue-1lakh crore
TAx recepits-6.5 lakh crore
GBS
DIPP
commonwealth games
NREGS-feb 03 -3.1 crore household
SSA(primary)-98% education has been coverd
now imphasis on quality
Mid Day Meal-hinger, gender parity,
ICDS-Malnutruiion,Child food stds under whO
NHRM-12070
BHarat nirma- 05-09
employment
NREGS
Agriculture
INfra
rural deve
fiscal prudence
fiscal devolution
GDP-7.5/9.5/9.7
IE-over 9% 3 consecutive yrs
PErcapita-4.5%
FIscal deficit-2.6
reve-1.1
investemnet-39%
saving rate-37%
GCF in Agri-14.2%-07-08
tax/gdp-12.5
inspiring leadership
2008 our granery are full
food-230mtoons 07-8
manu-9.4
commu n constra
foregin trae-35% of GDP
Marco ecomonmic-capital inflow -9% of GDP
inflation 08-09- crude iol-28(03-4)-147 in 08
WPI-13% in aug 08- 4.4 present
Global finncial crisis-sep 08 -investment.mortage n broking
USA/EU n japan
fiscal stimulus
credit availability
removal of import n export ban
procedural problem
libral n transparent FDI
FDI-32.4b 07-8
Extraordinary circumstances need extranodianay measures
Additional fiscal measures
13th FC-fiscal consolodation
policy reform for competitive
"growth with equity"
"social security net"
equitable -economic growth should be sustanable
inclusive "
NCMP-growth more inclusive
"faster n inclusive growth"
Agri-60% pop in villages
03-08 plan aallocatio
Rastiya krsihi viaksa yojna-4000 crores
04-doubleing the flow the growth of credit-250000 crores
reviavl pacage
interest subvention-shaort term loan -3% /annum
debt waiver scheme-65000 crores
Targeted PDS /CIP
annotadaya anna yojna
Remunerative prices for farmers
wheat-1080
rice
Rural development-RIDF-14000crore
RIDA-4000 crores
60 lakhs houses constructed under Indira awas yojna
Incentive -3F
Development of POSt- Project "ARROW" to revitaise its core operation
Litracy
universal
MMR
IMR
gender Equality
livlihood
UNiversalise education-Secondary
Higher education-Skill n knowlegede -900% increse in aloocation in 11th FYP
15 CEntral UNi
IIT-pun,bhiar,ap,rah,orisaa,guj
UP n HP in 2009
IISR-bhopal,pune
2 scholl of planning Viajaywada n bhopal
6 IIM
educational schems
500 ITI upgarder as centre of excelllece
skill devenpmt mission
Socail sector
Empowerment of women
Minority -new ministry-15 point programmes
ST n frorest dweler -2007 legal right on their land
NSKFDC-safai
cRedit link
RMkosh
"Priyadarsani"-Rural employment women
Indira G penssion scheme-65 n above BPL
IGDisability -(
IF window-200(40-60)
18-40- Pririrty to give admission in ITI -500pm
NHIS-22State n UT
AAM admi Beema yojna-
Roral landless schaem-
PSU-11 lakj
CPUprofits -91000 crores
loss makeing -55
profit-158 making
implementaio n of CPSE corpotate
NIF-75% social sector scheme n 25% to use the profitable n reviable to sick(1815 crore)
PSU bank
NPA-2.3% in 08
Securirt market
FII Traing n reserach iNstitute
transparent
aompanies ACt-Amendment
Tax system
personal IT
custom duty rate
excise duty
GST-April 2010
e-filing of return
taxpayer information system
TAx adm -functional stabity
compliance leve;
109 marrie vessaal for custom
ARC-
acoounablee suastable n efficent
delivet system
RTI
public dession making
6th PC-45lakh centaral n 38 lakh pensiores
buget 9lkah crore-08-09
plan-2.8 lakh crore
add plan-
centarl
JNURUM
Sunami
NOM plan-1.8
food subsidy
agric debt waiver
pension
telecommution
Central assiatance
NOn tAx revenue-1lakh crore
TAx recepits-6.5 lakh crore
GBS
DIPP
commonwealth games
NREGS-feb 03 -3.1 crore household
SSA(primary)-98% education has been coverd
now imphasis on quality
Mid Day Meal-hinger, gender parity,
ICDS-Malnutruiion,Child food stds under whO
NHRM-12070
BHarat nirma- 05-09
Saturday, February 14, 2009
15feb09
Srilankan ARmy
shia-sunni issue
Pak prez said that taliban is creating prob
Iraq prob?
railway
budget
safety has improved
head on collision
gateless gates
negligence of raiway stff
Zer tolranace
technology
Anti collision devices
contineous effort
Manned railway crossing-at small places
700 un manned level crossing-over bridge,rail under bridge
RPF-has vacencies,theft
operating ratio-decreseed due to 6th pay commison
technical devices-track circuiting,walky-talky,
unwanted people should be removed frm plateform to avoid theft etc
refresher courses to staff-Capacity building
shia-sunni issue
Pak prez said that taliban is creating prob
Iraq prob?
railway
budget
safety has improved
head on collision
gateless gates
negligence of raiway stff
Zer tolranace
technology
Anti collision devices
contineous effort
Manned railway crossing-at small places
700 un manned level crossing-over bridge,rail under bridge
RPF-has vacencies,theft
operating ratio-decreseed due to 6th pay commison
technical devices-track circuiting,walky-talky,
unwanted people should be removed frm plateform to avoid theft etc
refresher courses to staff-Capacity building
Economic crisis
Economic crisis " whose crisis is this"-
This is the crisis of poor people and of those who are dependent on job,this will exacerbate the crisis of economic recession and has impacted the poor.
Migration of poor from cities to villages has been started.
Outsourcing
Textile industry
Sensex tanks
in long run the infra development will reduce coz laon will become costlier
demand is less and savings are more
All sector that depends on export will be impacted
Real estate
SEZ -many sez developer hav selved their plan
Less oppourtunities for creative enerprises
tourism
socialisation of private losses
but this also provides the oppourtunity for the countrymen n govt to deal effectively by this by spending on infra and make rules and regulations more stringent so that crisis like this can we avoided .
This is the crisis of poor people and of those who are dependent on job,this will exacerbate the crisis of economic recession and has impacted the poor.
Migration of poor from cities to villages has been started.
Outsourcing
Textile industry
Sensex tanks
in long run the infra development will reduce coz laon will become costlier
demand is less and savings are more
All sector that depends on export will be impacted
Real estate
SEZ -many sez developer hav selved their plan
Less oppourtunities for creative enerprises
tourism
socialisation of private losses
but this also provides the oppourtunity for the countrymen n govt to deal effectively by this by spending on infra and make rules and regulations more stringent so that crisis like this can we avoided .
Friday, February 13, 2009
Prez speech
terrorism
national development
long term
education
=science
flagship programme-NREGA
Reconstruction program-militancy affected states
Rural-urban balance,Gandhi ji want
peace dividend
democracy deficit
changes in North-east-development
power-sharing arrangement in Sri-Lanka-Plural Sri-lanka
opposition Criticism is a very important for democracy
politics should be consesual and inclusive
15 Pont programme in Minority
Safety Net by Government-Recession
PRI running much better than before
Forex reserve
national development
long term
education
=science
flagship programme-NREGA
Reconstruction program-militancy affected states
Rural-urban balance,Gandhi ji want
peace dividend
democracy deficit
changes in North-east-development
power-sharing arrangement in Sri-Lanka-Plural Sri-lanka
opposition Criticism is a very important for democracy
politics should be consesual and inclusive
15 Pont programme in Minority
Safety Net by Government-Recession
PRI running much better than before
Forex reserve
Thursday, February 12, 2009
terrorism and pakistan is ging to create problen in the future if iNdia is not able to take the effective steps in coming years .Theaction taken by india has been paid of .yesterday pakistan has admitted that the 26/11 has been planned on their land. INdiA HAS TO TAKE DECISIVE AND credible action to tackle this menace.
IQ and EQ give way to spiritual intelligence, the ultimate intelligence that can add value and meaning to your lifeFor long, the world gave much importance to Intelligence Quotient. "My son has an IQ of 210!" the proud mother would gush. "He's going to be a scientist." This attitude is a legacy of the early 20th century when psychologists devised tests to measure intelligence. These tests primarily measured intellectual or rational intelligence (used to solve logical problems). The higher the figure, the belief went, the greater the intelligence.
In mid-1990s, Daniel Goleman revealed findings in neuroscience and psychology that stressed the importance of Emotional Quotient (EQ). This makes us aware of our feelings and that of others. It gives empathy, motivation, compassion and an ability to respond skillfully to pleasure and pain. Goleman argued that EQ was a basic requirement for the use of IQ. If the areas of our brain that feel are damaged, our ability to think effectively is diminished.
Last year, however, authors Dana Zohar and Ian Marshall introduced a new dimension to human intelligence. Spiritual Quotient (or SQ) is the ultimate intelligence, they claim. This is the intelligence used to solve problems of meaning and value. "Is my job giving me the fulfillment I seek?" "Am I relating to the people in my life in a way that contributes to their happiness and mine?" Answers to these questions determine whether we will find happiness or not. IQ and EQ are inadequate in such issues."Spiritual intelligence," explains Ram Mohan, a Vedanta teacher, "is about the growth of a human being. It is about moving on in life. About having a direction in life and being able to heal ourselves of all the resentment we carry. It is thinking of ourselves as an expression of a higher reality. It is also about how we look at the resources available to us. We realize that nature is not meant to be exploited. Ultimately, we discover freedom from our sense of limitation as human beings and attain moksha."
Anand Tendolkar, a workshop leader, says: "For me spiritual intelligence is about pondering over my life's purpose. Just being in touch with that question is fulfilling. Finally I realize that there is an immensity to me. As I move along the path, deeper levels of myself get unfolded, leading to fulfillment."
Humans are essentially spiritual beings, evolved to ask fundamental questions. "Who am I?" "Where am I going?" "What do others mean to me?" It is an ability to answer questions like these that lead people to personal growth workshops. Spiritual intelligence motivates people to balance their work schedules to spend time with the family. Or an executive with a high SQ might look beyond profit margins and devote time for voluntary work with orphans. Spiritual intelligence also addresses the need to place one's life in a shared context of value.
The transformative power of SQ distinguishes it from IQ and EQ. IQ primarily solves logical problems. EQ allows us to judge the situation we are in and behave appropriately. SQ allows us to ask if we want to be in that situation in the first place. It might motivate us to create a new one. SQ has little connection to formal religion. Atheists and humanists may have high SQ while someone actively religious may not.
"The awakening of our spiritual intelligence may be a time of great joy and meaning," says Anita Pandey, who frequents personal growth programs. "Suddenly I had a feeling of being in control. Earlier things happened to me. Now I am more aware. Also, I have actually started living those values I had heard about—like acceptance and unconditional love."In their book Spiritual Intelligence—The Ultimate Intelligence, Zohar and Marshall discuss the scientific evidence for SQ. In the 1990s, research by neuropsychologist Michael Persinger and neurologist V.S. Ramachandran at the University of California led to an identification of a 'God-spot' in the human brain. This area is located among neural connections in the temporal lobes of the brain. During scans with positron emission topography, these neural areas light up whenever research subjects are exposed to discussion of spiritual topics. Of course, this is culture specific, with Westerners responding to ideas of 'God' and Buddhists and Hindus responding to certain symbols. While the God-spot does not prove the existence of 'God', it does indicate that the brain is programmed to ask ultimate questions.
We use spiritual intelligence to transform ourselves and others, heal relationship, cope with grief, and move beyond conditioned habits of the past. To develop high SQ, each person needs to approach the task according to his/her personality.
J.L. Holland divided people into six personality types (take the test) and devised tests to determine one's type, or the mix.
On each personality test we would have scored between zero and 12. This indicates the strength of our interest in that sector of life. An average adult will score 6 or more on perhaps three of the personality types. For example, we might score highest (say nine) on the artistic type, but score seven on the enterprising type and six on the investigative. Naturally, we must allow for some degree of overlap between the different types.
Once we know our personality type, we can better choose our particular path to higher SQ.
CONVENTIONAL TYPE: THE PATH OF DUTYWe follow this path by serving the community. This is done by realizing our life's purpose and following it with full commitment. We have the interest of humanity in mind and pursue what we truly love for others' sake. Many of us may want to associate ourselves with a specific organization to fulfill this ambition. Whatever outlet we choose, we must avoid two common mistakes that people on this path make. Avoid becoming narcissistic. It is an easy trap to slip into. At one point we may withdraw completely from relationships and focus only on ourselves. Behaviors associated with such self-absorption include lying in bed late, heavy drinking and smoking and overindulgence in food and sex. A narcissist must address his problems adequately through therapy or spiritual practices before he can progress on the path of duty.Avoid extreme identification with your group and its uncritical championing. We must realize that there is a place in the world for groups whose values differ from ours.
SOCIAL TYPE: THE PATH OF NURTURINGThis path is about loving, nurturing and protecting. It corresponds to the Mother Goddess. People on this path include parents, teachers, nurses and therapists, who reach out to others with acceptance and compassion and provide them with the space to grow and find themselves.
To pursue this path, the right attitude is crucial. "How can I serve others when I myself need so much from others?" explains Ram Mohan. "For example, I live in a city where many of the things I consume—like food and medicines—are not produced. I need the efforts of so many people to make life possible. I realize that I am only making my talents available to people in return for things I am receiving. When I look at it this way, it helps me face the many disappointments I may encounter."
It is important to be mindful of the way we help others. A distorted way is to succumb to the shadow aspect of love and nurturing, which is hatred and revenge. Love can be patient and kind but when we do not truly love ourselves, our love for others becomes bitter and destructive.
Another common failing is to suffocate the person we seek to love. We have to give the person space to grow. To pursue this path effectively, we must be receptive and listen to the other person. We must be willing to reveal ourselves to others. A risk-free approach is unlikely to succeed.When we meet great teachers, one striking thing about them is their ability to truly be there for another person. Such attention and empathy is rare. To pursue this path, we must model ourselves on a teacher or mentor who has already clarified his life before reaching out to others.
INVESTIGATIVE TYPE: THE PATH OF KNOWLEDGEThe path of knowledge covers a broad range of experience. It could be something as simple as solving everyday problems. Or, as vast as pursuing a spiritual path. Most people on this path are scholars, scientists or those who have an intense love of learning.
How we pursue this path can have profound benefits for mankind. One can engage in research that solves problems plaguing mankind. For instance, a scientist could devise a cheap fuel that is eco-friendly.
While the potential of this path is limitless, we must clarify our intention in pursuing it.
We must realize that all things are interconnected and we cannot apply our knowledge to one area of experience without having profound effects on others.
Nandan Savnal, Mumbai-based NLP trainer, alerts us to another crucial aspect: "One of the most important challenges on this path," he says, "is whether you are going to be honest with yourself and question things. When you investigate matters, your value system will be challenged. You will have to press on regardless. You cannot afford to operate from your comfort zone."Another spiritually unintelligent way to walk this path that must be avoided is using our talent to support morally reprehensible work. Like the historians who deny the Holocaust or those who devote themselves to spreading racist propaganda.
ARTISTIC TYPE: THE PATH OF PERSONAL TRANSFORMATIONWriters, artists, musicians and their like constitute only 10 to 15 percent of the population. But most of us walk this path to some extent. The task facing such people is personal and transpersonal integration. We must explore the depths of ourselves and weld the disparate fragments into a harmonious whole.
The path most closely associated with the brain's God-spot activity, people here are most open to extreme emotions and eccentric behavior. For this reason, artists are most often thought of as society's healers (or shamans). They journey into the unknown and return with a fragment that can heal us all. This is the process that has created some of the world's greatest art.
Cultures throughout history have treated the artist as someone blessed with special vision. Indeed, their capacity to create societal awareness is profound. Consider the great saint-poets like Rumi and Kabir.
For Savnal, engaging with great stories from different traditions has been therapeutic. "When I was young," he says, "I was fascinated by the story about Bhima in which he has a wrestling match and jumps up with the strength of ten elephants every time he is knocked down. With time, I realized that the suggestion is to bounce back with greater energy every time you face a setback."
We must watch out for certain traps, however. One is becoming an aesthete—people concerned with form only who produce art purely for sensual gratification. Their goal is acquisition and display. Another common failing is to be a compulsive, permanent rebel. Such people will resist order and imagination in their art, fight committed relationships and even miss deadlines.The extremes described above are a turning away from conflict. But when an artist embraces his conflict he can claim his spiritual intelligence and produce art of lasting value.
REALISTIC PERSON: THE PATH OF BROTHERHOODPriti Sen is a caring middle-aged mother and a devoted wife. Her husband is a rich, influential businessman. She loves socializing and also does charity work. Seemingly strong, cheerful and in charge of her life, the truth about her is not immediately obvious. Her teenage son lost both his legs in an accident. While her shattered husband and other children cry almost daily, Priti is quiet, sensible and calm. She busies herself caring for her son, building a new life for him. Her ability to accept adversity is a source of strength to her family.
Priti exemplifies the attributes of the realistic type. Practical, no-nonsense, uncomfortable with overt feelings, these people personify the virtues of the hero. Their mission in life is to pursue the path of brotherhood and justice. It is to see a connection between themselves and all other beings. A Buddhist sutra describes this: "In the heaven of Indra (the king of the gods in the Hindu pantheon) there is a network of pearls so arranged that if you look at one, you see all the others reflected in it. In the same way, each object in the world is not merely itself, but involves every other object and in fact is every other object."Those who have internalized this precept form organizations that bring justice into the world. They decide how rights and goods are distributed for the benefit of all. This involves respect for the other's point of view. When such people work together in NGOs or spiritual organizations, they grow toward a deeper understanding that all people are players in a larger pattern.
ENTERPRISING TYPE: THE PATH OF SERVANT-LEADERSHIPAll human groupings, families, tribes and societies need leaders to impart vision, motivation and purpose. Effective leaders must be confident, outgoing and comfortable with power. Truly great leaders are servant-leaders-those who serve humanity by creating new ways for people to relate to each other. They put the good of society above their own good and take society in new directions. Buddha and Jesus were such leaders. In India, we had Emperor Ashoka who, after his brutal conquest of Kalinga, converted to Buddhism and embraced nonviolence. And environmentalists like Sunderlal Bahuguna and Medha Patkar have forced people to look afresh at ecological issues.
It must be stressed, however, that a servant-leader should have a great deal of inner clarity. A spiritually unintelligent way to walk this path is to use one's power to exploit others. Another mistake is to focus purely on one's petty needs and ignore the interests of the people we serve.
"The challenge is to have a vision," says Ram Mohan. "After that, the task is to build trust and empower people to give their best." It is essential to do this ethically. In a corrupt society, there will be pressures on us and we must know how to handle it. To retain his balance, a leader would do well to think about trusteeship. Gandhi declared that when an individual has more than his proportionate share of wealth, he should become a trustee of that portion on God's behalf.
It is to this noble vision of leadership that one must aspire. In an increasingly fragmented world, we need leaders of vision who can bring hope and purpose into the lives of others, someone who sees all of humanity as God's people. As Jesus said: "Not my will, Lord, but thine."
The outline of the above paths is meant to help those who wish to develop their spiritual intelligence and gain a better awareness of themselves. To this awareness must be added the invaluable ingredient of hard work. But thinking of ourselves as spiritual beings is a useful start. Once we do this, we can enlarge our idea of intelligence to include this greater vision of ourselves.When we commit ourselves to the chosen paths in this light, we begin to imbue greater meaning, value and fulfillment in our lives.
EIGHT SIGNS OF HIGH SQ
1. Flexibility2. Self-awareness3. An ability to face and use suffering4. The ability to be inspired by a vision5. An ability to see connections between diverse things (thinking holistically)6. A desire and capacity to cause as little harm as possible7. A tendency to probe and ask fundamental questions8. An ability to work against convention
SEVEN TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
With the popularity of EQ and SQ in recent years, it might be worth remembering an older way of conceiving intelligence, which helps cultivate individual aspects of ourselves. This is Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligence. In 1984, in his book Frames of Mind—The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, he offered a critique of IQ testing and suggested that what we possess is not one 'intelligence' but seven different intelligences. These are: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and spatial.
Intelligence Type:
How To Develop It:
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence This is what we use to manipulate concepts and arrange them into meaningful patterns. We develop this by constantly confronting objects, assessing them and reordering them. Linguistic IntelligenceThis is the intelligence that gives us sensitivity to language, an ability to absorb and manipulate it skillfully and to be aware of shades of meaning. Musical IntelligenceThis gives us our sensitivity to sound, our ability to arrange sounds into patterns pleasing to the human ear.Bodily-Kinesthetic IntelligenceThis is the intelligence that gives us the ability to perform tasks of great discipline and commitment with our bodies. Dancers, athletes and martial arts practitioners have this.Interpersonal IntelligenceThis gives us the ability to relate skillfully with others, to be aware of our feelings and the other person's, to see where the other person is coming from. Intrapersonal IntelligenceThis is about becoming truly aware of ourselves and having the ability to constantly purify ourselves in order to access higher levels of joy and power. Spatial Intelligence This form of intelligence calls upon our ability to create a mental image. It gives us the capacity to perceive the visual world accurately and to perform transformations and modifications upon our initial perceptions. Artists, designers and architects have this intelligence.
1. Learn a computer language2. Work on logic puzzles3. Identify scientific principles around the house: pumps, bulbs etc. 1. Take a writing class2. Record yourself speaking into a tape-recorder3. Memorize passages of poetry 1. Sing in the shower2. Memorize tunes3. Spend time listening to music everyday 1. Take up martial arts like tai chi or karate2. Take up a sport3. Learn a craft such as woodworking or crochet 1. Decide to meet one new person a week and stay in touch.2. Join an NGO3. Spend 15 minutes a day listening actively to a friend. 1. Do a vipassana course and make it a part of your life2. Spend time with yourself everyday, just being quiet3. Read biographies of people with powerful personalities1. Take classes in painting, sculpture or photography 2. Buy a graphics software program and create designs on the computer 3. Watch films with attention to lighting, camera angles, color and other aspects of cinema.
In mid-1990s, Daniel Goleman revealed findings in neuroscience and psychology that stressed the importance of Emotional Quotient (EQ). This makes us aware of our feelings and that of others. It gives empathy, motivation, compassion and an ability to respond skillfully to pleasure and pain. Goleman argued that EQ was a basic requirement for the use of IQ. If the areas of our brain that feel are damaged, our ability to think effectively is diminished.
Last year, however, authors Dana Zohar and Ian Marshall introduced a new dimension to human intelligence. Spiritual Quotient (or SQ) is the ultimate intelligence, they claim. This is the intelligence used to solve problems of meaning and value. "Is my job giving me the fulfillment I seek?" "Am I relating to the people in my life in a way that contributes to their happiness and mine?" Answers to these questions determine whether we will find happiness or not. IQ and EQ are inadequate in such issues."Spiritual intelligence," explains Ram Mohan, a Vedanta teacher, "is about the growth of a human being. It is about moving on in life. About having a direction in life and being able to heal ourselves of all the resentment we carry. It is thinking of ourselves as an expression of a higher reality. It is also about how we look at the resources available to us. We realize that nature is not meant to be exploited. Ultimately, we discover freedom from our sense of limitation as human beings and attain moksha."
Anand Tendolkar, a workshop leader, says: "For me spiritual intelligence is about pondering over my life's purpose. Just being in touch with that question is fulfilling. Finally I realize that there is an immensity to me. As I move along the path, deeper levels of myself get unfolded, leading to fulfillment."
Humans are essentially spiritual beings, evolved to ask fundamental questions. "Who am I?" "Where am I going?" "What do others mean to me?" It is an ability to answer questions like these that lead people to personal growth workshops. Spiritual intelligence motivates people to balance their work schedules to spend time with the family. Or an executive with a high SQ might look beyond profit margins and devote time for voluntary work with orphans. Spiritual intelligence also addresses the need to place one's life in a shared context of value.
The transformative power of SQ distinguishes it from IQ and EQ. IQ primarily solves logical problems. EQ allows us to judge the situation we are in and behave appropriately. SQ allows us to ask if we want to be in that situation in the first place. It might motivate us to create a new one. SQ has little connection to formal religion. Atheists and humanists may have high SQ while someone actively religious may not.
"The awakening of our spiritual intelligence may be a time of great joy and meaning," says Anita Pandey, who frequents personal growth programs. "Suddenly I had a feeling of being in control. Earlier things happened to me. Now I am more aware. Also, I have actually started living those values I had heard about—like acceptance and unconditional love."In their book Spiritual Intelligence—The Ultimate Intelligence, Zohar and Marshall discuss the scientific evidence for SQ. In the 1990s, research by neuropsychologist Michael Persinger and neurologist V.S. Ramachandran at the University of California led to an identification of a 'God-spot' in the human brain. This area is located among neural connections in the temporal lobes of the brain. During scans with positron emission topography, these neural areas light up whenever research subjects are exposed to discussion of spiritual topics. Of course, this is culture specific, with Westerners responding to ideas of 'God' and Buddhists and Hindus responding to certain symbols. While the God-spot does not prove the existence of 'God', it does indicate that the brain is programmed to ask ultimate questions.
We use spiritual intelligence to transform ourselves and others, heal relationship, cope with grief, and move beyond conditioned habits of the past. To develop high SQ, each person needs to approach the task according to his/her personality.
J.L. Holland divided people into six personality types (take the test) and devised tests to determine one's type, or the mix.
On each personality test we would have scored between zero and 12. This indicates the strength of our interest in that sector of life. An average adult will score 6 or more on perhaps three of the personality types. For example, we might score highest (say nine) on the artistic type, but score seven on the enterprising type and six on the investigative. Naturally, we must allow for some degree of overlap between the different types.
Once we know our personality type, we can better choose our particular path to higher SQ.
CONVENTIONAL TYPE: THE PATH OF DUTYWe follow this path by serving the community. This is done by realizing our life's purpose and following it with full commitment. We have the interest of humanity in mind and pursue what we truly love for others' sake. Many of us may want to associate ourselves with a specific organization to fulfill this ambition. Whatever outlet we choose, we must avoid two common mistakes that people on this path make. Avoid becoming narcissistic. It is an easy trap to slip into. At one point we may withdraw completely from relationships and focus only on ourselves. Behaviors associated with such self-absorption include lying in bed late, heavy drinking and smoking and overindulgence in food and sex. A narcissist must address his problems adequately through therapy or spiritual practices before he can progress on the path of duty.Avoid extreme identification with your group and its uncritical championing. We must realize that there is a place in the world for groups whose values differ from ours.
SOCIAL TYPE: THE PATH OF NURTURINGThis path is about loving, nurturing and protecting. It corresponds to the Mother Goddess. People on this path include parents, teachers, nurses and therapists, who reach out to others with acceptance and compassion and provide them with the space to grow and find themselves.
To pursue this path, the right attitude is crucial. "How can I serve others when I myself need so much from others?" explains Ram Mohan. "For example, I live in a city where many of the things I consume—like food and medicines—are not produced. I need the efforts of so many people to make life possible. I realize that I am only making my talents available to people in return for things I am receiving. When I look at it this way, it helps me face the many disappointments I may encounter."
It is important to be mindful of the way we help others. A distorted way is to succumb to the shadow aspect of love and nurturing, which is hatred and revenge. Love can be patient and kind but when we do not truly love ourselves, our love for others becomes bitter and destructive.
Another common failing is to suffocate the person we seek to love. We have to give the person space to grow. To pursue this path effectively, we must be receptive and listen to the other person. We must be willing to reveal ourselves to others. A risk-free approach is unlikely to succeed.When we meet great teachers, one striking thing about them is their ability to truly be there for another person. Such attention and empathy is rare. To pursue this path, we must model ourselves on a teacher or mentor who has already clarified his life before reaching out to others.
INVESTIGATIVE TYPE: THE PATH OF KNOWLEDGEThe path of knowledge covers a broad range of experience. It could be something as simple as solving everyday problems. Or, as vast as pursuing a spiritual path. Most people on this path are scholars, scientists or those who have an intense love of learning.
How we pursue this path can have profound benefits for mankind. One can engage in research that solves problems plaguing mankind. For instance, a scientist could devise a cheap fuel that is eco-friendly.
While the potential of this path is limitless, we must clarify our intention in pursuing it.
We must realize that all things are interconnected and we cannot apply our knowledge to one area of experience without having profound effects on others.
Nandan Savnal, Mumbai-based NLP trainer, alerts us to another crucial aspect: "One of the most important challenges on this path," he says, "is whether you are going to be honest with yourself and question things. When you investigate matters, your value system will be challenged. You will have to press on regardless. You cannot afford to operate from your comfort zone."Another spiritually unintelligent way to walk this path that must be avoided is using our talent to support morally reprehensible work. Like the historians who deny the Holocaust or those who devote themselves to spreading racist propaganda.
ARTISTIC TYPE: THE PATH OF PERSONAL TRANSFORMATIONWriters, artists, musicians and their like constitute only 10 to 15 percent of the population. But most of us walk this path to some extent. The task facing such people is personal and transpersonal integration. We must explore the depths of ourselves and weld the disparate fragments into a harmonious whole.
The path most closely associated with the brain's God-spot activity, people here are most open to extreme emotions and eccentric behavior. For this reason, artists are most often thought of as society's healers (or shamans). They journey into the unknown and return with a fragment that can heal us all. This is the process that has created some of the world's greatest art.
Cultures throughout history have treated the artist as someone blessed with special vision. Indeed, their capacity to create societal awareness is profound. Consider the great saint-poets like Rumi and Kabir.
For Savnal, engaging with great stories from different traditions has been therapeutic. "When I was young," he says, "I was fascinated by the story about Bhima in which he has a wrestling match and jumps up with the strength of ten elephants every time he is knocked down. With time, I realized that the suggestion is to bounce back with greater energy every time you face a setback."
We must watch out for certain traps, however. One is becoming an aesthete—people concerned with form only who produce art purely for sensual gratification. Their goal is acquisition and display. Another common failing is to be a compulsive, permanent rebel. Such people will resist order and imagination in their art, fight committed relationships and even miss deadlines.The extremes described above are a turning away from conflict. But when an artist embraces his conflict he can claim his spiritual intelligence and produce art of lasting value.
REALISTIC PERSON: THE PATH OF BROTHERHOODPriti Sen is a caring middle-aged mother and a devoted wife. Her husband is a rich, influential businessman. She loves socializing and also does charity work. Seemingly strong, cheerful and in charge of her life, the truth about her is not immediately obvious. Her teenage son lost both his legs in an accident. While her shattered husband and other children cry almost daily, Priti is quiet, sensible and calm. She busies herself caring for her son, building a new life for him. Her ability to accept adversity is a source of strength to her family.
Priti exemplifies the attributes of the realistic type. Practical, no-nonsense, uncomfortable with overt feelings, these people personify the virtues of the hero. Their mission in life is to pursue the path of brotherhood and justice. It is to see a connection between themselves and all other beings. A Buddhist sutra describes this: "In the heaven of Indra (the king of the gods in the Hindu pantheon) there is a network of pearls so arranged that if you look at one, you see all the others reflected in it. In the same way, each object in the world is not merely itself, but involves every other object and in fact is every other object."Those who have internalized this precept form organizations that bring justice into the world. They decide how rights and goods are distributed for the benefit of all. This involves respect for the other's point of view. When such people work together in NGOs or spiritual organizations, they grow toward a deeper understanding that all people are players in a larger pattern.
ENTERPRISING TYPE: THE PATH OF SERVANT-LEADERSHIPAll human groupings, families, tribes and societies need leaders to impart vision, motivation and purpose. Effective leaders must be confident, outgoing and comfortable with power. Truly great leaders are servant-leaders-those who serve humanity by creating new ways for people to relate to each other. They put the good of society above their own good and take society in new directions. Buddha and Jesus were such leaders. In India, we had Emperor Ashoka who, after his brutal conquest of Kalinga, converted to Buddhism and embraced nonviolence. And environmentalists like Sunderlal Bahuguna and Medha Patkar have forced people to look afresh at ecological issues.
It must be stressed, however, that a servant-leader should have a great deal of inner clarity. A spiritually unintelligent way to walk this path is to use one's power to exploit others. Another mistake is to focus purely on one's petty needs and ignore the interests of the people we serve.
"The challenge is to have a vision," says Ram Mohan. "After that, the task is to build trust and empower people to give their best." It is essential to do this ethically. In a corrupt society, there will be pressures on us and we must know how to handle it. To retain his balance, a leader would do well to think about trusteeship. Gandhi declared that when an individual has more than his proportionate share of wealth, he should become a trustee of that portion on God's behalf.
It is to this noble vision of leadership that one must aspire. In an increasingly fragmented world, we need leaders of vision who can bring hope and purpose into the lives of others, someone who sees all of humanity as God's people. As Jesus said: "Not my will, Lord, but thine."
The outline of the above paths is meant to help those who wish to develop their spiritual intelligence and gain a better awareness of themselves. To this awareness must be added the invaluable ingredient of hard work. But thinking of ourselves as spiritual beings is a useful start. Once we do this, we can enlarge our idea of intelligence to include this greater vision of ourselves.When we commit ourselves to the chosen paths in this light, we begin to imbue greater meaning, value and fulfillment in our lives.
EIGHT SIGNS OF HIGH SQ
1. Flexibility2. Self-awareness3. An ability to face and use suffering4. The ability to be inspired by a vision5. An ability to see connections between diverse things (thinking holistically)6. A desire and capacity to cause as little harm as possible7. A tendency to probe and ask fundamental questions8. An ability to work against convention
SEVEN TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE
With the popularity of EQ and SQ in recent years, it might be worth remembering an older way of conceiving intelligence, which helps cultivate individual aspects of ourselves. This is Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligence. In 1984, in his book Frames of Mind—The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, he offered a critique of IQ testing and suggested that what we possess is not one 'intelligence' but seven different intelligences. These are: logical-mathematical, linguistic, musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and spatial.
Intelligence Type:
How To Develop It:
Logical-Mathematical Intelligence This is what we use to manipulate concepts and arrange them into meaningful patterns. We develop this by constantly confronting objects, assessing them and reordering them. Linguistic IntelligenceThis is the intelligence that gives us sensitivity to language, an ability to absorb and manipulate it skillfully and to be aware of shades of meaning. Musical IntelligenceThis gives us our sensitivity to sound, our ability to arrange sounds into patterns pleasing to the human ear.Bodily-Kinesthetic IntelligenceThis is the intelligence that gives us the ability to perform tasks of great discipline and commitment with our bodies. Dancers, athletes and martial arts practitioners have this.Interpersonal IntelligenceThis gives us the ability to relate skillfully with others, to be aware of our feelings and the other person's, to see where the other person is coming from. Intrapersonal IntelligenceThis is about becoming truly aware of ourselves and having the ability to constantly purify ourselves in order to access higher levels of joy and power. Spatial Intelligence This form of intelligence calls upon our ability to create a mental image. It gives us the capacity to perceive the visual world accurately and to perform transformations and modifications upon our initial perceptions. Artists, designers and architects have this intelligence.
1. Learn a computer language2. Work on logic puzzles3. Identify scientific principles around the house: pumps, bulbs etc. 1. Take a writing class2. Record yourself speaking into a tape-recorder3. Memorize passages of poetry 1. Sing in the shower2. Memorize tunes3. Spend time listening to music everyday 1. Take up martial arts like tai chi or karate2. Take up a sport3. Learn a craft such as woodworking or crochet 1. Decide to meet one new person a week and stay in touch.2. Join an NGO3. Spend 15 minutes a day listening actively to a friend. 1. Do a vipassana course and make it a part of your life2. Spend time with yourself everyday, just being quiet3. Read biographies of people with powerful personalities1. Take classes in painting, sculpture or photography 2. Buy a graphics software program and create designs on the computer 3. Watch films with attention to lighting, camera angles, color and other aspects of cinema.
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